The Red Flag: A History of Communism (121 page)

63
. On Guinea, for positive views of the PAIGC, see Lars Rudebeck,
Guinea-Bissau. A Study of Political Mobilization
(Uppsala, 1974). For negative views, see M. Dhada,
Warriors at Work. How Guinea Really was Set Free
(Niwot, Colo., 1993).

64
. I. Brinkman, ‘War, Witches and Traitors: Cases from the MPLA’s Eastern Front in Angola (1966–1975)’,
Journal of African History
44 (2003), pp.303–25.

65
. Isaacman and Isaacman,
Mozambique
, p.86.

66
. M. Anne Pitcher,
Transforming Mozambique. The Politics of Privatization, 1975
–
2000
(New York, 2002), pp.28–37.

67
. Quoted in R. Dallek,
Nixon and Kissinger. Partners in Power
(London, 2007), pp.228.

68
. On party thinking, see Westad,
Global Cold War
, pp.202–3; on military and foreign ministry thinking, see V. M. Zubok,
A Failed Empire: The Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev
(Chapel Hill, 2007), p.249.

69
. P. Sigmund,
The Overthrow of Allende and the Politics of Chile, 1964
–
1976
(Pittsburgh, 1977), ch.13.

70
. J. Haslam,
The Nixon Administration and the Death of Allende’s Chile: a Case of Assisted Suicide
(London, 2005), ch.7; P. Kornbluh,
The Pinochet File: A Declassified Dossier on Atrocity and Accountability
(New York, 2003).

71
. Zubok,
Failed Empire
, p.249.

72
. On the army, see D. Porch,
The Portuguese Armed Forces and the Revolution
(London, 1977).

73
. P. Pinto, ‘Urban Social Movements and the Transition to Democracy in Portugal, 1974–1976’,
Historical Journal
51 (2008), pp.1025–46; Nancy G. Bermeo,
The Revolution within the Revolution: Workers’ Control in Rural Portugal
(Princeton, 1986).

74
. Pinto, ‘Urban Social Movements’, p.1025.

75
. M. Couto, ‘The Secret Love of Deolinda’, in Couto,
Everyman is a Race
, trans. D. Brookshaw (Portsmouth, NH, 1994), p.112.

76
. For comparisons between Soviet Marxism and African Marxism, see M. Ottaway, ‘Soviet Marxism and African Socialism’,
Journal of Modern African Studies
16, 3 (1978), pp.477–85.

77
. Machel, 18 November 1976, quoted in Hall and Young,
Confronting Levia-than
, pp.76, 67.

78
. Hall and Young,
Confronting Leviathan
, p.102.

79
. J. Coelho, ‘State Resettlement Policies in post-Colonial Rural Mozambique: The Impact of the Communal Village Programme on Tete Province, 1977–1982’,
Journal of Southern African Studies
24 (1988), pp.61–91.

80
. D. Birmingham, ‘Angola’, in P. Chabal (ed.),
A History of Lusophone Africa
(London, 2002), pp.152–3.

81
. H. Tuma,
The Case of the Socialist Witchdoctor and Other Stories
(Oxford, 1993), p.8.

82
. Balsvik,
Students
, p.133.

83
. B. Zewde,
A History of Modern Ethiopia, 1855
–
1991
(Oxford, 2001), p.222.

84
. Ibid., pp.149–50.

85
. Balsvik,
Students
, p.294.

86
. Cited in Dawit Wolde Giorgis,
Red Tears. War, Famine and Revolution in Ethiopia
(Trenton, NJ, 1989), p.11.

87
. R. Lefort,
Ethiopia: An Heretical Revolution?
trans. A. Berret (London, 1983), p.276.

88
. Zewde,
Modern Ethiopia
, p.249.

89
. Lefort,
Ethiopia
, p.278.

90
. For this view of Mengistu, see D. Donham,
Marxist Modern. An Ethnographic History of the Ethiopian Revolution
(Berkeley, 1999), pp.129–30; Dawit,
Red Tears
, pp.30–1.

91
. A. Tiruneh,
The Ethiopian Revolution, 1974
–
1987
(Cambridge, 1993), p.79.

92
. Donham,
Marxist Modern
, p.29.

93
. Report to USAID mission in Ethiopia, 1976.

94
. Lefort,
Ethiopia
, p.278.

95
. See M. Ezra,
Ecological Degradation, Rural Poverty, and Migration in Ethiopia. A Contextual Analysis
(New York, 2001).

96
. F. Bizot,
The Gate
, trans. E. Cameron (London, 2004).

97
. Ibid., p.119.

98
. Ibid., p.116.

99
. Ibid., p.117.

100
. Ibid., p.115.

101
. D. P. Chandler,
Brother Number One: A Political Biography of Pol Pot
, rev. edn (Boulder, 1999), pp.8–9, 37.

102
. F. Debré,
Cambodge: La Révolution de la forêt
(Paris, 1976), p.82.

103
. Interview with Soth Polin, cited in Chandler,
Brother Number One
, p.52.

104
. Pol Pot, ‘Abbreviated History Lesson on the History of the Kampuchean Revolutionary Movement Led by the Communist Party of Kampuchea’ (early 1977), in D. Chandler, B. Kiernan and C. Boua (eds.),
Pol Pot Plans the Future
(New Haven, 1988), pp.218–19.

105
. See, for instance, F. Ponchaud, ‘Social Change in the Vortex of Revolution’, in K. Jackson (ed.),
Cambodia 1975
–
1978
:
Rendezvous with Death
(Princeton, 1989), pp.170 ff.

106
. Bizot,
The Gate
, p.110.

107
. B. Kiernan, ‘Enver Pasha and Pol Pot: A Comparison between the Armenian and Cambodian Genocides’, in
Proceedings of the International Conference on the ‘Problems of Genocide’
(Cambridge, Mass., 1997), pp.56–7.

108
. P. Short,
Pol Pot: The History of a Nightmare
(London, 2004), p.337.

109
. J.-L. Margolin, ‘Cambodia. The Country of Disconcerting Crimes’, in S. Courtois et al.,
The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression
(Cambridge, Mass., 1999), p.626.

110
. For different views, see K. Jackson, ‘Introduction’, in Jackson (ed.),
Cambodia
, pp.9, 11; M. Vickery, ‘Democratic Kampuchea: Themes and Variations’, in D. Chandler and B. Kiernan (eds.),
Revolution and Its Aftermath in Kampuchea: Eight Essays
(New Haven, 1983), p.131.

111
. Cited in B. Kiernan,
The Pol Pot Regime: Race, Power and Genocide in Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge, 1975
–
79
(New Haven, 1996), p.62.

112
. See Short,
Pol Pot
, p.287.

113
. A. Hinton, ‘Why Did You Kill? The Cambodian Genocide and the Dark Side of Face and Honor’,
The Journal of Asian Studies
57 (1998), p.110.

114
. Chandler et al.,
Pol Pot Plans the Future
, p.158.

115
. S. Heder,
Kampuchean Occupation and Resistance
(Bangkok, 1980), p.6.

116
. Cited in Chandler,
Brother Number One
, p.115.

117
. D. Pran,
Children of Cambodia’s Killing Fields. Memoirs of Survivors
(New Haven, 1997), p.131

118
. Margolin, ‘Cambodia’, p.626.

119
. Chandler et al.,
Pol Pot Plans the Future
, p.183.

120
. For higher estimates, see M. Sliwinsky,
Le Génocide Khmer Rouge: Une analyse démographique
(Paris, 1995). For numbers of deaths, see Margolin, ‘Cambodia’, pp.588–91.

121
. Hinton, ‘Why Did You Kill?’, pp.113, 118.

122
. A. Hyman,
Afghanistan under Soviet Domination, 1964
–
91
(London, 1992), pp.92–8.

123
. For Soviet thinking, H. Bradsher,
Afghan Communism and Soviet Intervention
(Oxford, 2000), ch.3; Westad,
Global Cold War
, pp.299–326.

124
. Silvio Pons, ‘Meetings between the Italian Communist Party and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Moscow and Rome, 1978–80’,
Cold War History
3 (2002), pp.157–66.

125
.
The Economist
, 20 December 1978.

1
. D. Remnick,
Lenin’s Tomb. The Last Days of the Soviet Empire
(London, 1994), p.156.

2
. Cited in M. Leffler,
For the Soul of All Mankind. The United States, the Soviet Union and the Cold War
(New York, 2007), p.385.

3
. Ibid., p.394.

4
. D. Reynolds,
Summits. Six Meetings That Shaped the Twentieth Century
(London, 2007), p.360.

5
. M. Gorbachev,
Memoirs
(London, 1997), p.489.

6
. Liu Binyan,
People or Monsters? And Other Stories and Reportage from China after Mao
, ed. P. Link (Bloomington, 1983), pp.11–68.