Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789-1815 (172 page)

26
. Irving Brant,
James Madison: The President, 1809–1812
(Indianapolis, 1956), 69.

27
. JM, “Universal Peace” (1792),
Madison: Writings
, 505.

28
. Janus, the ancient Roman god, was noted not only for two-facedness. To commemorate him the Romans always left the temple of Janus open in time of war so that the god could come to their aid. The door was only closed when Rome was at peace.

29
. TJ to JM, 28 Aug. 1789,
Republic of Letters
, 629; Gerald Stourzh,
Alexander Hamilton and the Idea of Republican Government
(Stanford, 1970), 266; Spivak,
Jefferson’s English Crisis
, 6, 7.

30
. JM, “Political Observations” (1795),
Papers of Madison
, 15, 518–19.

31
. Frank Lambert,
The Barbary Wars: American Independence in the Atlantic World
(New York, 2005), 7.

32
. JM to TJ, 20 Aug. 1805,
Republic of Letters
, 1379–80; Lambert,
Barbary Wars
, 123.

33
. Lambert,
Barbary Wars
, 47.

34
. Robert J. Allison, ed.,
Narratives of Barbary Captivity: Recollections of James Leander Cathcart, Jonathan Cowdry, and William Ray
(Chicago, 2007), xxxi.

35
. Lambert,
Barbary Wars
, 48.

36
. TJ to James Monroe, 11Nov. 1784,
Papers of Jefferson
, 7: 511.

37
. JA to TJ, 6 June 1786, to JA, 11 July 1786, in Lester J. Cappon, ed.,
The Adams-Jefferson Letters: The Complete Correspondence Between Thomas Jefferson and Abigail and John Adams
(Chapel Hill, 1959), 1: 133–34, 141–43.

38
. Robert J. Allison,
The Crescent Obscured: The United States and the Muslim World, 1776–1815
(New York, 1995), 21.

39
. Lambert,
Barbary Wars
, 93.

40
. TJ to JM, 28 Aug. 1801,
Republic of Letters
, 1194.

41
. Allison,
Crescent Obscured
, 29.

42
. TJ, Second Annual Message, 15Dec. 1802, in James C. Richardson, ed.,
A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789–1897
(Washington, DC, 1900), 1: 331.

43
. Richard Zacks,
The Pirate Coast: Thomas Jefferson, the First Marines, and the Secret Mission of 1805
(New York, 2005), 30.

44
. Lambert,
Barbary Wars
, 144; Allison,
Crescent Obscured
, 190; Fletcher Pratt,
Preble’s Boys: Commodore Preble and the Birth of American Sea Power
(New York, 1950), 94–95; Allison,
Stephen Decatur
, 45–54; Allison, ed.,
Narratives of Barbary Captivity
, lxi.

45
. Zacks,
Pirate Coast
, 377. The Arabic names and words have been transliterated in the form eighteenth-century English-speakers understood them, not in the more accurate modern transliteration.

46
. [Anon.],
The American in Algiers; or, The Patriot of Seventy-Six in Captivity
(New York, 1797), in James G. Basker et al., eds.,
Early American Abolitionists: A Collection of Anti-Slavery Writings, 1760–1820
(New York, 2005), 242–61; Allison,
Crescent Obscured
, 92.

47
. JM to TJ, 30 Sept. 1805,
Republic of Letters
, 1389; Donald Hickey, “The Monroe-Pinckney Treaty of 1806: A Reappraisal,”
WMQ
, 44 (1987), 71.

48
. Monroe to JM, 25 Sept. 1805, in Hickey, “Monroe-Pinkney Treaty of 1806,” 72.

49
. Perkins,
Prologue to War
, 137.

50
. Pauline Maier,
American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence
(New York, 1997), 170–75; Armitage,
Declaration of Independence
, 92, 165; TJ to JM, 30 Aug. 1823,
Republic of Letter
s, 1876.

51
. Malone,
Jefferson the President: Second Term
, 401.

52
. TJ to JM, 15 Aug. 1804,
Republic of Letters
, 1335–36.

53
. Hickey, “Monroe-Pinkney Treaty of 1806,” 86.

54
. Eugene Perry Link,
Democratic-Republican Societies, 1790–1800
(New York, 1942), 137; James H. Kettner,
The Development of American Citizenship, 1608–1870
(Chapel Hill, 1978), 271–73.

55
. Perkins,
Prologue to War
, 84–95.

56
. Catherine O’Donnell Kaplan,
Men of Letters in the Early Republic: Cultivating Forums of Citizenship
(Chapel Hill, 2008), 201; BR to JA, 29 June, 14Aug. 1805,
Spur of Fame
, 28, 31.

57
. Malone,
Jefferson the President: Second Term
, 69.

58
. Malone,
Jefferson the President: Second Term
, 110.

59
. Donald R. Hickey,
The War of 1812
:
A Forgotten Conflict
(Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1990), 73.

60
. Hickey,
War of 1812
, 14.

61
. Merrill D. Peterson,
Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography
(New York, 1970), 863–64.

62
. Perkins,
Prologue to War
, 74.

63
. Hickey,
War of 1812
, 18.

64
. Hickey,
War of 1812
, 19; Perkins,
Prologue to War
, 2.

65
. TJ, Eighth Annual Message to Congress, 8 Nov. 1808,
Jefferson: Writings
, 544.

66
. Peterson,
Jefferson and the New Nation
, 876.

67
. TJ to JM, 26 Aug. 1807,
Republic of Letters
, 1492.

68
. TJ to JM, 16 Aug. 1807,
Republic of Letters
, 1486.

69
. JM to TJ, 20 Sept. 1807,
Republic of Letters
, 1499.

70
. Malone,
Jefferson the President: Second Term
, 464.

71
. TJ to Thomas Leiper, 21 Aug. 1807, in Ford,
Writings of Jefferson
, 9: 130. See Joseph I. Shulim, “Thomas Jefferson Views Napoleon,”
Va. Mag. of Hist. and Biog
., 60 (1960), 288–304.

72
. Perkins,
Prologue to War
, 187.

73
. Roger H. Brown,
The Republic in Peril: 1812
(New York, 1964), 13.

74
. TJ, Message to Congress, 18 Dec. 1807, in Richardson, ed.,
Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789–1897
, 1: 433.

75
. Forrest McDonald,
The Presidency of Thomas Jefferson
(Lawrence, KS, 1976), 107.

76
. Malone,
Jefferson the President: Second Term
, 469.

77
. Malone,
Jefferson the President: Second Term
, 486–87.

78
. Gallatin to TJ, 18 Dec. 1807, in Henry Adams, ed.,
The Writings of Albert Gallatin
(Philadelphia, 1879), 1: 368.

79
. TJ to Robert Fulton, 21 July 1813, in Malone,
Jefferson the President: Second Term
, 506.

80
. Irving Brant,
James Madison: Secretary of State, 1800–1809
(Indianapolis, 1953), 402–3; Malone,
Jefferson the President: Second Term
, 488–90.

81
. TJ to William Cabell, 13 March 1808, in Spivak,
Jefferson’s English Crisis
, 105.

82
. TJ to Maj. Joseph Eggleston, 7 March 1808, in Malone,
Jefferson the President: Second Term
, 483.

83
. TJ to JM, 11 March 1808,
Republic of Letters
, 1515; Tucker and Hendrickson,
Empire of Liberty
, 211.

84
.
Annals of Congress
, 10th Congress, 1st session (April 1808), 2: 1960–64; Malone,
Jefferson the President: Second Term
, 517.

85
. Malone,
Jefferson the President: Second Term
, 517;
Annals of Congress
, 10th Congress, 1st session (April 1808), 2: 2849–52.

86
. TJ to Tomkins, 15 Aug. 1808, in L and B, eds.,
Writings of Jefferson
, 12: 131–33.

87
. TJ to Captain McGregor, 26 Aug. 1808, in H. A. Washington, ed.,
The Writings of Thomas Jefferson
(Washington, DC, 1853), 5: 356.

88
. TJ to Rodney, 24 Apr. 1808, in L and B, eds.,
Writings of Jefferson
, 12: 36; Malone,
Jefferson the President: Second Term
, 585.

89
. Joseph I. Shulim, “Thomas Jefferson Views Napoleon,”
Va. Mag. of Hist. and Biog
., 60 (1952), 295; TJ to Monroe, 28 Jan. 1809, in L and B, eds.,
Writings of Jefferson
, 12: 241–42.

90
. Spivak,
Jefferson’s English Crisis
, 117.

91
. Malone,
Jefferson the President: Second Term
, 590, 591.

92
. William Bentley,
The Diary of William Bentley, D.D: Pastor of East Church, Salem, Massachusetts
(Gloucester, MA, 1962), 3: 313.

93
. Malone,
Jefferson the President: Second Term
, 613.

94
. James Duncan Phillips, “Jefferson’s ‘Wicked Tyrannical Embargo,’”
New England Quarterly
, 18 (1945), 466–78;
American Register
, 3 (1808), 450–52.

95
. Samuel E. Morison,
Maritime History of Massachusetts, 1783–1860
(Boston, 1921), 189; Douglas North, “The United States Balance of Payments, 1790–1860,”
Trends in the American Economy in the Nineteenth Century,
National Bureau of Economic Research, Studies in Income and Wealth, 24 (Princeton, 1960), 590–92.

96
. Adam Rothman,
Slave Country: American Expansion and the Origins of the Deep South
(Cambridge, MA, 2005), 54.

97
. Gallatin to TJ, 29 July 1808, in Adams, ed.,
Writings of Gallatin
, 1: 399.

98
. Jerry L. Mashaw, “Reluctant Nationalists: Federal Administration and Administrative Law in the Republican Era, 1801–1829,”
Yale Law Journal
, 116 (2007), 1655.

99
. Malone,
Jefferson the President: Second Term
, 639; TJ to Lehre, 8 Nov. 1808, in L and B, eds.,
Writings of Jefferson
, 12: 191.

100
. Malone,
Jefferson the President: Second Term
, 652.

101
. James H. Broussard,
The Southern Federalists, 1800–1816
(Baton Rouge, 1978), 107.

102
. Malone,
Jefferson the President: Second Term
, 653, 654.

103
. Malone,
Jefferson the President: Second Term
, 639;
Annals of Congress
, 10th Congress, 2nd session (Dec. 1808), 19: 276.

104
. At least one modern econometrician agrees that the British experienced more economic suffering than the Americans did and that the embargo failed because of the lack of sufficient political will in America. Jeffrey A. Frankel, “The 1807–1809 Embargo Against Great Britain,”
Journal of Economic History
, 42 (1982), 291–308. See also Perkins,
Prologue to War
, 205.

105
. Malone,
Jefferson the President: Second Term
, 644, 657; TJ to Monroe, 28 Jan. 1808, in Ford, ed.,
Writings of Jefferson
, 9: 243; to Judge St. George Tucker, 25 Dec. 1808, in Malone,
Jefferson the President: Second Term
, 657.

1
. Norman K. Risjord,
The Old Republicans: Southern Conservatism in the Age of Jefferson
(New York, 1965), 145 .

2
. J.C.A. Stagg,
Mr. Madison’s War: Politics, Diplomacy, and Warfare in the Early American Republic, 1783–1830
(Princeton, 1983), 3; Henry Adams,
History of the United States of America During the Administration of James Madison
(1889–1891; New York, 1986), 452 .

3
. On the differing views of historians over the causes of the war, see Louis M. Hacker, “Western Land Hunger and the war of 1812,”
Mississippi Valley Historical Review
, 10 (1924), 366–95; Julius W. Pratt,
Expansionists of 1812
(New York, 1925); George R. Taylor, “Agrarian Discontent in the Mississippi Valley Preceding the War of 1812,”
Journal of Political Economy
, 39 (1931), 471–505; Warren H. Goodman, “The Origins of the War of 1812: A Survey of Changing Interpretations,”
Mississippi Valley Historical Review
, 28 (1941–1942), 171–86; Reginald Horsman,
The Causes of the War of 1812
(Philadelphia, 1962); and Bradford Perkins, ed.,
The Causes of the War of 1812: National Honor or National Interest?
(New York, 1962).