Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789-1815 (168 page)

42
. GW to John Francis Mercer, 9 Sept 1786,
Washington: Writings
, 607; Charles Rappleye,
Sons of Providence: The Brown Brothers, the Slave Trade, and the American Revolution
(New York, 2006), 297.

43
. Richard S. Newman,
The Transformation of American Abolitionism: Fighting Slavery in the Early Republic
(Chapel Hill, 2002), 33; Ellsworth quoted in J. J. Spengler, “Malthusianism in Late Eighteenth-Century America,”
American Economic Review
, 25 (1935), 705.

44
. Jay Coughtry,
The Notorious Triangle: Rhode Island and the Slave Trade, 1700–1807
(Philadelphia, 1981); Stanley Lemons, “Rhode Island and the Slave Trade,”
Rhode Island History
, 60 (2002), 95–104; Steven Doyle,
Carry Me Back: The Domestic Slave Trade in American Life
(New York, 2005), 19.

45
. Richard S. Dunn, “Black Society in the Chesapeake, 1776–1810,” in Berlin and Hoffman, eds.,
Slavery and Freedom in the Age of the American Revolution
, 49–82.

46
. James Broussard,
The Southern Federalists, 1800–1816
(Baton Rouge, 1978), 11.

47
. Broussard,
Southern Federalists
, 89–90, 235–40, 364–68, 371–73, 377–81, 390–91.

48
. George C. Rogers Jr.,
Charleston in the Age of the Pinckneys
(Columbia, SC, 1969).

49
. David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler,
Daily Life in the Early Republic, 1790–1820: Creating a New Nation
(Westport, CT, 2004), 68.

50
. William W. Freehling,
The Road to Disunion: Secessionists at Bay, 1776–1854
(New York, 1990), 220.

51
. Rothman,
Slave Country
, 47–51.

52
. Rothman,
Slave Country
, 77–78, 83, 94; Carlyle Sitterson,
Sugar Country: The Cane Sugar Industry in the South
(Lexington, KY, 1953); John G. Clark,
New Orleans, 1718–1812: An Economic History
(Baton Rouge, 1970), 219, 275.

53
. James K. Paulding, “Slaves and Rivermen: Western Virginia, 1816,” in Warren S. Tyron, ed.,
A Mirror for Americans: Life and Manners in the United States, 1790–1870, as Recorded by American Travelers
(Chicago, 1952), 259.

54
. Drew R. Mccoy, The
Last of the Fathers: James Madison and the Republican Legacy
(Cambridge, UK, 1989), 222–23.

55
. Robin L. Einhorn,
American Taxation, American Slavery
(Chicago, 2006), 220, 232, 249, 236; Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick, “A New Meaning for Turner’s Frontier: Part II: The Southwest Frontier and New England,”
Political Science Quarterly
, 69 (1954), 572–76.

56
. Garry Wills,
‘Negro President’: Jefferson and the Slave Power
(Boston, 2003).

57
. Leonard L. Richards,
The Slave Power: The Free North and Southern Domination, 1780–1860
(Baton Rouge, 2000); Don E. Fehrenbacher,
The Slaveholding Republic: An Account of the United States Government’s Relations to Slavery
(New York, 2001).

58
. Donald R. Wright,
African Americans in the Early Republic, 1789–1831
(Arlington Heights, IL, 1993), 89; David P. Geggus, ed.,
The Impact of the Haitian Revolution in the Atlantic World
(Columbia, SC, 2001).

59
. James Sidbury,
Ploughshares into Swords: Race, Rebellion, and Identity in Gabriel’s Virginia, 1730–1810
(Cambridge, UK, 1997), 39–48; Donald Robinson,
Slavery in the Structure of American Politics
(New York, 1979), 364.

60
. Egerton,
Gabriel’s Rebellion
, 15.

61
. Egerton,
Gabriel’s Rebellion
, 40.

62
. Egerton,
Gabriel’s Rebellion
, 49, 51; Sidbury,
Ploughshares into Swords
, 97.

63
. Egerton,
Gabriel’s Rebellion
, 102.

64
. Monroe to the Speaker of the General Assembly, 5 Dec. 1800, in Stanislaus M. Hamilton, ed.,
Writings of James Monroe
(New York, 1900), 3: 208–9.

65
. Fredericksburg
Virginia Herald
, 22 Sept. 1800, in Gordon S. Wood, ed.,
The Rising Glory of America
, rev. ed. (Boston, 1990), 361.

66
. Egerton,
Gabriel’s Rebellion,
114.

67
. Duncan J. MacLeod,
Slavery, Race, and the American Revolution
(Cambridge, UK, 1974), 155–58; Ira Berlin,
Slaves Without Masters: The Free Negro in the Antebellum South
(New York, 1975), 36–41; Jordan,
White over Black
, 580.

68
. David Brion Davis,
The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution, 1770–1823
(Ithaca, 1975), 196.

69
. TJ,
Notes on the State of Virginia
, ed. Peden, 138–43.

70
. TJ,
Notes on the State of Virginia
, ed. Peden, 138–43; TJ to James Monroe, 24 Nov. 1801, to Edward Coles, 25 Aug. 1814,
Jefferson: Writings
, 270, 1097, 1345.

71
. Duncan J. MacLeod, “Toward Caste,” in Berlin and Hoffman, eds.,
Slavery and Freedom
, 235.

72
. TJ,
Notes on the State of Virginia
, ed. Peden, 138.

73
. JM, Memorandum on an African Colony for Freed Slaves, ca. 20 Oct. 1789,
Papers of Madison
, 12: 438.

74
. Clare A. Lyons,
Sex Among the Rabble: An Intimate History of Gender and Power in the Age of Revolution, Philadelphia, 1730–1830
(Chapel Hill, 2006), 224, 355; MacLeod,
Slavery, Race, and the American Revolution
, 163; Leon F. Litwack,
North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790–1860
(Chicago, 1961), 81.

75
. Harvey Strum, “Property Qualifications and Voting Behavior in New York, 1807–1816,”
JER
, 1 (1981), 360–61; Leslie M. Harris,
In the Shadow of Slavery: African Americans in New York City, 1626–1863
(Chicago, 2003), 58–60.

1
. Russell B. Nye,
The Cultural Life of the New Nation, 1776–1830
(New York, 1960), 257;
Journals of Ralph Waldo Emerson
, ed. Edward Waldo Emerson and Waldo Emerson Forbes (Boston, 1909–14), 8: 339.

2
. Linda Kerber,
Federalists in Dissent: Imagery and Ideology in Jeffersonian America
(Ithaca, 1970), 3n; Catherine O’Donnell Kaplan,
Men of Letters in the Early Republic: Cultivating Forums of Citizenship
(Chapel Hill, 2008).

3
. TJ to John Hollis, 19 Feb. 1809, in L and B, eds.,
Writings of Jefferson
, 12: 252–54; Dumas Malone,
Jefferson the President: Second Term, 1805–1809
(Boston, 1974), 661.

4
. On the cosmopolitanism of the Revolutionaries, see Arthur L. Ford,
Joel Barlow
(New York, 1971), 27, 31, 59, 61; and Allan Guttman, “Copley, Peale, Trumbull: A Note on Loyalty,”
American Quarterly
, 11 (1959), 178–83.

5
. Andrew Burstein,
Sentimental Democracy: The Evolution of America’s Romantic Self-Image
(New York, 1999), 165–66.

6
. Gordon S. Wood,
The Creation of the American Republic, 1776–1787
(Chapel Hill, 1969), 50; David Ramsay,
An Oration on the Advantages of American Independence
(1778), in Robert L. Brunehouse, ed., “David Ramsay, 1740–1815: Selections from His Writings,” American Philosophical Society,
Trans
., 55 (1965), 185.

7
. Kenneth Silverman,
A Cultural History of the American Revolution
(New York, 1976), 10.

8
. Berkeley quoted in Lewis P. Simpson, ed.,
The Federalist Literary Mind: Selections from the Monthly Anthology and Boston Review, 1803–1811
(Baton Rouge, 1962), 34.

9
. Silverman,
Cultural History of the American Revolution
, 10–11; Joseph J. Ellis,
After the Revolution: Profiles of Early American Culture
(New York, 1979), 7.

10
. Andrew Burnaby,
Travels Through the Middle Settlements in North America: In the Years 1759 and 1760
(1775; Ithaca, 1960). Early in the nineteenth century John Adams recalled that ever since he was a young lawyer in Massachusetts it had been a common observation that the “arts, sciences, and empire had traveled westward” and that “the next leap would be over the Atlantic into America.” JA to BR, 21 May 1807, in Adams, ed.,
Works
, 9: 600.

11
. Silverman,
Cultural History of the American Revolution
, 230.

12
. Ezra Stiles, “Election Sermon” (1783), in John Wingate Thornton, ed.,
The Pulpit of the American Revolution; or, the Political Sermons of the Period
(Boston, 1876), 460.

13
. On neoclassicism, see Hugh Honour,
Neo-Classicism
(Harmondsworth, UK, 1968), and the exhibition catalogue of the Royal Academy and the Victoria & Albert Museum,
The Age of Neo-Classicism
(London, 1972).

14
. For these cultural changes, see R. G. Saisselin, “The Transformation of Art into Culture: From Pascal to Diderot,” in Theodore Besterman, ed.,
Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century
, 70 (Geneva, 1970), 3–25; R. G. Saisselin, “Tivoli Revisited or the Triumph of Culture,” in Paul Fritz and David Williams, eds.,
The Triumph of Culture: Eighteenth-Century Perspectives
(Toronto, 1972), 3–25; J. H. Plumb, “The Public, Literature and the Arts in the Eighteenth Century,” ibid., 27–48; and Robert Rosenblum,
Transformations in Late Eighteenth-Century Art
(Princeton, 1970).

15
. JA to Abigail Adams, 9 Oct. 1774, 25 April 1778, April–May 1780, in Lyman Butterfield et al., eds., The
Book of Abigail and John: Selected Letters of the Adams Family, 1762–1784
(Cambridge, MA, 1975), 79, 210, 256; Neil Harris,
The Artist in American Society: The Formative Years, 1790–1860
(New York, 1966), 33–34; Wendell D. Garrett, “John Adams and the Limited Role of the Fine Arts,”
Winterthur Portfolio
, 1 (1964), 243–55.

16
. Stanley Grean,
Shaftesbury’s Philosophy of Religion and Ethics: A Study in Enthusiasm
(Athens, OH, 1967), 250; Lawrence Klein, “The Third Earl of Shaftesbury and the Progress of Politeness,”
Eighteenth-Century Studies
, 18 (1984–85), 186–214.

17
. Winckelmann quoted in Eric Slauter, “Neoclassical Culture in a Society with Slaves: Race and Rights in the Age of Wheatley,”
Early American Studies
(Spring 2004), 101.

18
. Caroline Winterer, “From Royal to Republican: The Classical Image in Early America,”
JAH
, 91 (2005), 1264–90; Caroline Winterer,
The Culture of Classicism: Ancient Greece and Rome in American Intellectual Life, 1780–1910
(Baltimore, 2002); Meyer Reinhold, ed.,
The Classick Pages: Classical Readings of Eighteenth-Century Americans
(University Park, PA, 1975); Carl J. Richard,
The Founders and the Classics: Greece, Rome, and the American Enlightenment
(Cambridge, MA, 1994).

19
. Constantin François Volney,
A New Translation of Volney’s Ruins; or, Meditations on the Revolution of Empire
(Paris, 1802);
American Museum
, 8 (1790), 174–76; J. Meredith Neil,
Toward a National Taste: America’s Quest for Aesthetic Independence
(Honolulu, 1975), 143.

20
. Helmut von Erffa and Allen Staley,
The Paintings of Benjamin West
(New Haven, 1986), 9.

21
. “Letters and Papers of John Singleton Copley and Henry Pelham, 1739–1776,” Massachusetts Historical Society,
Coll
., 71 (1914), 661–66.

22
. Trumbull to TJ, 11 June 1789,
Papers of Jefferson
, 15: 176–79; Irma B. Jaffe,
John Trumbull: Patriot Artist of the American Revolution
(Boston, 1975).

23
. Harris,
Artist in American Society
, 42.

24
.
Massachusetts Magazine
, 4 (1792), 434.

25
. Neil,
Toward A National Taste
, 145.

26
. GW to Lafayette, 28 May 1788,
Washington: Writings
, 680–81.

27
. Frank H. Sommer, “Emblem and Device: The Origin of the Great Seal of the United States,”
Art Quarterly
, 24 (1961), 57–77; Burstein,
Sentimental Democracy
, 132–34; Steven C. Bullock, “‘Sensible Signs’: The Emblematic Education of Post-Revolutionary Freemasonry,” in Donald R. Kennon, ed.,
A Republic for the Ages: The United States Capitol and the Political Culture of the Early Republic
(Charlottesville, 1999), 203, 210.