When Computers Were Human (78 page)

Herschel, John,
39
,
40

Herschel, William,
39
,
46

H.M.S. Pinafore
. See
Observatory Pinafore

Hollerith, Herman,
94
–
96
,
145
,
146
,
288
.
See
International Business Machines
;
punched card machines

Hoover, Herbert,
146
–
51
,
311

Hopper, Grace,
254
,
300

House Un-American Activities Committee,
299
,
305
–
10

Hunter College for Women,
209
,
221
,
260

Indiana University,
183
,
184
,
195

Industrial Revolution,
5
,
311

Institute for Advanced Study,
205
,
217
,
245
,
266
,
285
,
292
,
295

Institute for Numerical Analysis,
298
–
306
,
309
–
12
; computing office of,
301
–
4
; and political turmoil,
304
–
10

Institute for the Exact Sciences.
See
Newcomb, Simon

insurance,
4
,
44
,
47
,
60
,
66
,
93
,
102
,
124
,
164
,
237
,
278
,
318
.
See also
actuaries

International Business Machines,
164
,
166
,
188
,
190
,
192
–
94
,
226
,
227
,
233
,
244
,
247
,
267
,
270
,
272
,
303
,
311
; Card-Programmed Calculator,
303
,
311
; and Columbia University,
190
–
95
,
242
; as CTR Company,
146
,
159
,
163
; and Harvard University,
231
; Model 701 computer,
311
; Model 601 tabulator,
193
,
225
; System 360 computer,
314
,
315
.
See also
Watson, Thomas J.

Iowa State College,
150
,
164
–
66
,
187
,
188
,
194
,
198
,
225
–
27
,
229
,
266
,
268
,
311
; Statistical Computing Laboratory,
166
,
169
,
187
,
188
,
194
,
199
,
221
,
225
,
303
,
328

isograph.
See
Fry, Thornton

Japan,
180
,
237
,
256
,
276
,
278
,
285

Jupiter,
14
,
15
,
20
,
23
,
48
,
59
,
121
,
192
,
321

Kaimowitz, Gittel.
See
Blanch, Gertrude

Kepler, Johannes,
6
,
14

Krampe, Charlotte,
238
,
257

labor conflicts,
52
,
113
,
292
,
293
,
294
.
See also
computers, human
;
division of labor

Lalande, Joseph,
16
,
18
–
20
,
22
,
24
,
25
,
27
,
37
,
61
,
321
,
328

Lanczos, Cornelius,
273
,
328

Langley Field,
256
,
276

Laputa, mythical kingdom of,
21
,
43
,
104
,
137
,
168
.
See also
Swift, Jonathan

Le Verrier, Urban Jean Joseph,
59
,
60
,
64
,
328

least squares,
78
,
161
,
162
,
225
,
295
,
303
,
328
; adjustment of surveys by,
78
,
81
,
93
,
160
–
62
,
165
; and punched card machines,
162
,
165
; statistical analysis with,
161
–
66
,
187
,
225
,
227
.
See also
Doolittle, Myrrick

Lee, Alice,
109
–
12
,
201

Lepaute, Nicole-Reine,
16
,
19
,
20
,
22
,
24
,
25
,
27
,
37
,
81
,
91
,
321
,
328

linear programming.
See
mathematical methods

Littlewood, John,
130
,
261

logarithms,
6
,
36
,
91
,
92
,
107
,
125
,
157
,
199

Long Range Navigation (LORAN),
249
–
53
,
269
,
277
,
289
,
328

longitude, methods of determining,
35
,
50
,
65
,
73
,
74
,
77
,
104
,
159
,
253
; chronometric method,
27
–
29
,
47
,
49
,
66
; lunar distance method,
27
–
29
,
47
,
129

LORAN.
See
Long Range Navigation

Lovelace, Ada,
44

Lowan, Arnold,
234
,
239
,
242
–
53
,
258
,
287
,
298
–
300
,
307
,
313
,
314
,
329
; background and education of,
203
–
6
; and John Curtiss,
291
–
94
,
298
,
299
; and efforts to continue MTP,
245
,
247
,
251
,
254
,
255
,
289
–
92
,; and promotion of MTP,
216
–
19
,
244
; in the Second World War,
246
–
50
,
267
–
71
,
273
,
280
,
283
–
85
,
294
,
295
,
296
; and security clearance,
248
,
249
; and start of MTP,
206
,
209
–
12
,
214
–
16
; and John von Neumann,
245
,
264

Lucasian Professor of Mathematics,
50
,
329

Manhattan Project,
134
,
273
–
75
,
284
,
288
,
301
,
306
,
307
,
313
,
329
; and Mathematical Tables Project,
273
; T-5 computing group of,
275

Martin, Artemis,
98

Mars,
62
,
69
,
70
,
87
,
319

Maskelyne, Nevil,
27
–
33
,
35
,
37
,
40
,
41
,
46
,
47
,
51
,
57
,
62
–
64
,
91
,
120
,
129
,
156
,
215
,
329

Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
60
,
62
,
152
,
178
,
179
,
217
,
244
,
249
–
51
,
253
,
272
,
286

mass production,
7
,
91
–
93
,
95
,
100
–
1
,
145
,
158

mathematical ballistics.
See
ballistics

mathematical methods: binary arithmetic,
79
,
80
,
222
–
24
,
227
; calculus (
see
calculus
); complex arithmetic,
169
,
171
,
221
–
25
,
230
,
267
; differencing,
37
,
215
; interpolation,
31
,
32
,
41
,
263
; least squares (
see
least squares
); linear programming,
295
,
296
,
303
,
304
; monte carlo techniques,
304
; probability theory,
265
; simultaneous equations,
225
–
27
,
230
,
268
,
295
,
303
,
304
; numerical integration (also called mechanical quadrature and method of small arcs),
121
–
24
,
130
,
156
; polynomials and roots,
32
,
222
,
223
; trigonometry,
34
–
38
,
40
,
41
,
50
,
73
,
136
,
258
.
See also
progressive digiting

Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation,
178
–
81
,
195
–
97
,
211
,
234
,
237
–
39
,
243
,
246
,
256
,
257
,
329
; and Mathematical Tables Project,
210
–
12
,
246
; computer conference of,
285
–
87
; Journal of,
257
,
261
,
286
,
294
,
299
,
311

Mathematical Tables Committee (BAAS),
173
,
174
,
184
,
197
,
211
,
217
,
236
,
261
,
262

Mathematical Tables Project,
223
,
232
,
239
,
288
,
300
,
301
,
303
,
304
,
307
,
312
,
318
,
329
; and Applied Mathematics Panel,
254
,
255
,
258
,
266
,
267
; approval of computing plans of,
246
; and army and navy,
244
,
247
; background of computers in,
212
,
252
; begins operations,
211
–
12
; and Hans Bethe,
218
,
219
; as Computation Laboratory,
290
–
97
,
314
; and computing machinery,
220
,
247
,
285
; D-Day calculations of,
269
–
71
; defense certification of,
246
–
48
; division of labor within,
213
,
258
; efforts to disband and final days of,
244
,
245
,
251
,
252
,
254
,
280
,
284
,
285
,
289
,
291
,
292
,
294
,
298
,
299
,
318
; error corrections and techniques of,
213
–
15
;
and Handbook of Mathematical Functions
,
313
,
314
; handicapped workers at,
243
,
276
; and Harvard,
231
,
232
; and Cornelius Lanczos,
273
; and linear programming,
295
,
296
,
299
,
304
; and LORAN/New York Hydrographic Institute,
250
,
252
,
256
,
269
,
277
,
285
; and Manhattan Project,
273
,
274
; and move to Washington,
291
–
99
; and MTAC,
246
; and NDRC,
254
,
247
; organization and staffing of,
200
–
3
,
212
–
13
,
242
,
250
,
253
,
255
,
257
,
290
; Planning Committee of,
213
,
214
,
234
,
273
,
284
; post–Second World War status of,
283
,
285
,
289
; as proxy for ENIAC,
295
,
296
; reputation of,
215
–
17
,
219
,
242
,
243
,
245
–
49
,
255
,
273
,
280
,
284
,
285
,
289
; and scientific community,
243
,
280
,
291
; and Second World War,
247
,
255
,
267
,
268
,
278
,
280
,
283
; security within,
248
–
50
,
253
,
284
,
285
; training computers for,
258
,
273
; and University of Pennsylvania,
257
,
258
; and John von Neumann,
205
,
264
; and war certification,
244
–
48
,
307
; work load of,
216
,
268
–
71
,
277
,
278
,
280
; and WPA,
201
,
203
,
210
,
215
–
17
,
234
,
243
,
244
,
247
,
250
,
251
,
255
,
277
.
See also
Blanch, Gertrude
;
Lowan, Arnold
;
National Bureau of Standards
;
Work Projects Administration mathematics
.
See
mathematical methods
;
calculus