The Sleepwalkers (99 page)

1
. Norman Stone, ‘Constitutional Crises in Hungary, 1903–1906',
Slavonic and East European Review
, 45 (1967), pp. 163–82; Peter F. Sugar, ‘An Underrated Event: The Hungarian Constitutional Crisis of 1905–6',
East European Quarterly
(Boulder), 15/3 (1981) pp. 281–306.

2
. A. Murad,
Franz Joseph and His Empire
(New York, 1978), p. 176; Andrew C. Janos, ‘The Decline of Oligarchy: Bureaucratic and Mass Politics in the Age of Dualism (1867–1918)', in Andrew C. Janos and William B. Slottman (eds.),
Revolution in Perspective: Essays on the Hungarian Soviet Republic of 1919
(Berkeley, 1971), pp. 1–60, here pp. 23–4.

3
. Cited in Alan Sked,
The Decline and Fall of the Habsburg Empire 1815– 1918
(New York, 1991), p. 190.

4
. Samuel R. Williamson,
Austria-Hungary and the Origins of the First World War
(Houndmills, 1991), p. 24; figures for 1880 in Sked,
Decline and Fall
, pp. 278–9.

5
. Sked,
Decline and Fall
, pp. 210–11; Janos, ‘The Decline of Oligarchy', pp. 50–53.

6
. Brigitte Hamann,
Hitlers Wien. Lehrjahre eines Diktators
(Munich, 1996), pp. 170–74.

7
. Steven Beller,
Francis Joseph
(London, 1996), p. 173; Arthur J. May,
The Hapsburg Monarchy, 1867–1914
(Cambridge, MA, 1951), p. 440; C. A. Macartney,
The House of Austria. The Later Phase, 1790–1918
(Edinburgh, 1978), p. 240; R. A. Kann,
A History of the Habsburg Empire, 1526–1918
(Berkeley, 1977), pp. 452–61; Robin Okey,
The Habsburg Monarchy, c. 1765–1918. From Enlightenment to Eclipse
(London, 2001), pp. 356–60.

8
. For an interesting reflection on this problem, see Arthur J. May, ‘R. W. Seton-Watson and British Anti-Hapsburg Sentiment',
American Slavic and East European Review
, vol. 20, no. 1 (Feb 1961), pp. 40–54.

9
. For an excellent brief analysis, see Lothar Höbelt, ‘Parliamentary Politics in a Multinational Setting: Late Imperial Austria', CAS Working Papers in Austrian Studies Series, Working Paper 92–6; his arguments are set out in more detail in id., ‘Parteien und Fraktionen im Cisleithanischen Reichsrat', in Adam Wandruszka and Peter Urbanitsch (eds.),
Die Habsburgermonarchie 1848–1918
(10 vols., Vienna, 1973–2006), vol. 7/1, pp. 895–1006.

10
. László Katus, ‘The Common Market of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy', in András Gerö (ed.),
The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy Revisited
, trans. Thomas J. and Helen D. DeKornfeld (New York, 2009), pp. 21–49, here p. 41.

11
. István Deák, ‘The Fall of Austria-Hungary: Peace, Stability, and Legitimacy', in Geir Lundestad (ed.),
The Fall of Great Powers
(Oxford, 1994), pp. 81–102, here pp. 86–7.

12
. György Köver, ‘The Economic Achievements of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. Scales and Speed', in Gerö (ed.),
Austro-Hungarian Monarchy
, pp. 51–83, here p. 79; Nachum T. Gross, ‘The Industrial Revolution in the Habsburg Monarchy 1750–1914', in Carlo C. Cipolla (ed.),
The Emergence of Industrial Societies
(6 vols., New York, 1976), vol. 4/1, pp. 228–78; David F. Good, ‘“Stagnation” and “Take-Off” in Austria, 1873–1913',
Economic History Review
, 27/1 (1974), pp. 72–88 argues that while there was no Austrian ‘take-off', strictly speaking, growth in the Austrian part of the monarchy remained robust throughout the pre-war period; John Komlos, ‘Economic Growth and Industrialisation in Hungary 1830–1913',
Journal of European Economic History
, 1 (1981), pp. 5–46; id.,
The Habsburg Monarchy as a Customs Union. Economic Development in Austria- Hungary in the Nineteenth Century
(Princeton, 1983), esp. pp. 214–20; for an account that stresses the vitality of Austrian (as opposed to Hungarian), per capita GDP growth, see Max Stephan Schulze, ‘Patterns of Growth and Stagnation in the Late Nineteenth-Century Habsburg Economy',
European Review of Economic History
, 4 (2000), pp. 311–40.

13
. Henry Wickham Steed,
The Hapsburg Monarchy
(London, 1919), p. 77.

14
. John Leslie, ‘The Antecedents of Austria-Hungary's War Aims. Policies and Policy-makers in Vienna and Budapest before and during 1914', in Elisabeth Springer and Leopold Kammerhold (eds.),
Archiv und Forschung. Das Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv in seiner Bedeutung für die Geschichte Österreichs und Europas
(Vienna, 1993), pp. 307–94, here p. 354.

15
. Kann,
History
, p. 448; May,
Hapsburg Monarchy
, pp. 442–3; Sked,
Decline and Fall
, p. 264; Sazonov to Nicholas II, 20 January 1914, GARF, Fond 543, op. 1, del. 675.

16
. Okey,
Habsburg Monarchy
, pp. 303, 305.

17
. Wolfgang Pav, ‘Die dalmatinischen Abgeordneten im österreichischen Reichsrat nach der Wahlrechtsreform von 1907', MA thesis, University of Vienna, 2007, p. 144, viewed on line at
http://othes.univie.ac.at/342/1/11-29-2007_0202290.pdf
.

18
. On this tendency, see John Deak, ‘The Incomplete State in an Age of Total War. Or: The Habsburg Monarchy and the First World War as a Historiographical Problem', unpublished typescript, University of Notre Dame, 2011; John Deak presented a version of this paper at the Cambridge Modern European History Seminar in 2011; I am extremely grateful to him for letting me see a pre-publication version of the full text.

19
. Maureen Healy,
Vienna and the Fall of the Habsburg Empire. Total War and Everyday Life in World War I
(Cambridge, 2004), p. 24; John W. Boyer, ‘Some Reflections on the Problem of Austria, Germany and Mitteleuropa',
Central European History
, 22 (1989), pp. 301–15, here p. 311.

20
. On the growth of the state in these years, see Deak, ‘The Incomplete State in an Age of Total War'.

21
. Gary B. Cohen, ‘Neither Absolutism nor Anarchy: New Narratives on Society and Government in Late Imperial Austria',
Austrian History Yearbook
, 29/1, (1998), pp. 37–61, here p. 44.

22
. Robert Musil,
Der Mann ohne Eigenschaften
(Hamburg, 1978), pp. 32–3.

23
. Barbara Jelavich,
History of the Balkans
(2 vols., Cambridge, 1983), vol. 2, p. 68.

24
. F. Palacky to the Frankfurt Parliament's ‘Committee of Fifty', 11 April 1848, in Hans Kohn,
Pan-Slavism. Its History and Ideology
(Notre Dame, 1953), pp. 65–9.

25
. Cited in May,
Hapsburg Monarchy
, p. 199.

26
. Lawrence Cole, ‘Military Veterans and Popular Patriotism in Imperial Austria, 1870–1914', in id. and Daniel Unowsky (eds.),
The Limits of Loyalty. Imperial Symbolism, Popular Allegiances and State Patriotism in the Late Habsburg Monarchy
(New York, Oxford, 2007), pp. 36–61, here p. 55.

27
. On Franz Joseph as an ‘unpersonality' and a ‘demon of mediocrity', see Karl Kraus,
The Last Days of Mankind. A Tragedy in Five Parts
, trans. Alexander Gode and Sue Ellen Wright, ed. F. Ungar (New York, 1974), Act IV, Scene 29, p. 154; see also Hugh LeCaine Agnew, ‘The Flyspecks on Palivec's Portrait. Franz Joseph, the Symbols of Monarchy and Czech Popular Loyalty', in Cole and Unowsky (eds.),
Limits of Loyalty
, pp. 86–112, here p. 107.

28
. Lothar Höbelt,
Franz Joseph I. Der Kaiser und sein Reich. Eine politische Geschichte
(Vienna, 2009); on the Emperor's role in the making of laws and constitutions: Lászlo Péter, ‘Die Verfassungsentwicklung in Ungarn', in Wandruszka and Urbanitsch (eds.),
Die Habsburgermonarchie
, vol. 7/1, pp. 239–540, esp. pp. 403–14.

29
. Beller,
Francis Joseph
, p. 173.

30
. Joseph Maria Baernreither,
Fragmente eines politischen Tagebuches. Die südslawische Frage und Österreich-Ungarn vor dem Weltkrieg
, ed. Joseph Redlich (Berlin, 1928), p. 210.

31
. On loyalty to the Emperor, see Stephen Fischer-Galati, ‘Nationalism and Kaisertreue',
Slavic Review
, 22 (1963), pp. 31–6; Robert A. Kann, ‘The Dynasty and the Imperial Idea',
Austrian History Yearbook
, 3/1 (1967), pp. 11–31; Lawrence Cole and Daniel Unowsky, ‘Introduction. Imperial Loyalty and Popular Allegiances in the Late Habsburg Monarchy', in id. (eds.),
Limits of Loyalty
, pp. 1–10; in the same volume, see also the following chapters: Christiane Wolf, ‘Representing Constitutional Monarchy in Late Nineteenth-Century and Early Twentieth-Century Britain, Germany and Austria', pp. 199–222, esp. p. 214; Alice Freifeld, ‘Empress Elisabeth as Hungarian Queen: The Uses of Celebrity Monarchy', pp. 138–61.

32
. Joseph Roth,
The Radetzky March
, trans. Michael Hofmann (London, 2003), p. 75.

33
. F. R. Bridge,
From Sadowa to Sarajevo. The Foreign Policy of Austria-Hungary, 1866–1914
(London, 1972), p. 71.

34
. Noel Malcolm,
Bosnia. A Short History
(London, 1994), p. 140.

35
. Michael Palairet,
The Balkan Economies c. 1800–1914. Evolution without Development
(Cambridge, 1997), pp. 171, 369; Peter F. Sugar,
The Industrialization of Bosnia-Herzegovina, 1878–1918
(Seattle, 1963); a less enthusiastic appraisal emphasizing the instrumental, self-interested character of Austrian investment is Kurt Wessely, ‘Die wirtschaftliche Entwicklung von Bosnien-Herzegovina', in Wandruszka and Urbanitsch (eds.),
Die Habsburgermonarchie
, vol. 1, pp. 528–66.

36
. Robert J. Donia,
Islam under the Double Eagle. The Muslims of Bosnia and Herzegovina 1878–1914
(New York, 1981), p. 8; Robert A. Kann, ‘Trends towards Colonialism in the Habsburg Empire, 1878–1914: The Case of Bosnia-Hercegovina 1878–1918', in D. K. Rowney and G. E. Orchard (eds.),
Russian and Slavic History
(Columbus, 1977), pp. 164–80.

37
. Martin Mayer, ‘Grundschulen in Serbien während des 19. Jahrhunderts. Elementarbildung in einer “Nachzüglergesellschaft”', in Norbert Reiter and Holm Sundhaussen (eds.),
Allgemeinbildung als Modernisierungsfaktor. Zur Geschichte, der Elementarbildung in Südosteuropa von der Aufklärung bis zum Zweiten Weltkrieg
(Berlin, 1994), p. 93.

38
. Malcolm,
Bosnia
, p. 144.

39
. Vladimir Dedijer,
The Road to Sarajevo
(London, 1967), p. 278.

40
. Comment recorded by former Austrian trade minister Joseph Maria Baernreither,
Der Verfall des Habsburgerreiches und die Deutschen. Fragmente eines politischen Tagebuches 1897–1917
, ed. Oskar Mitis (Vienna, 1939), pp. 141–2.

41
. William Eleroy Curtis,
The Turk and His Lost Provinces: Greece, Bulgaria, Servia, Bosnia
(Chicago and London, 1903), p. 275; President Roosevelt may well have been reading Curtis, who also makes the link to the Philippines.

42
. Edvard Beneš,
Le Problème Autrichien et la Question Tchèque
(Paris, 1908), p. 307, cited in Joachim Remak, ‘The Ausgleich and After – How Doomed the Habsburg Empire?' in Ludovik Holotik and Anton Vantuch (eds.),
Der Österreich-Ungarische Ausgleich
1867 (Bratislava, 1971), pp. 971–88, here p. 985.

43
. Wickham Steed, letter to the editor,
TLS
, 24 September 1954; id.,
The Hapsburg Monarchy
, p. xiii.

44
. Tomáš G. Masaryk,
The Making of a State. Memories and Observations, 1914–1918
(London, 1927 [orig. Czech and German editions appeared in 1925]), p. 8. For a discussion of Steed's view and of this passage, see Deak, ‘The Incomplete State in an Age of Total War'.

45
. Oszkár Jászi,
The Dissolution of the Habsburg Monarchy
(Chicago, 1929), pp. 23, 451.

46
. Oszkár Jászi, ‘Danubia: Old and New',
Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
, 93/1 (1949), pp. 1–31, here p. 2.

47
. Mihály Babits,
Keresztükasul életemen
(Budapest, 1939), cited in Mihály Szegedy-Maszák, ‘The Re-evaluated Past. The Memory of the Dual Monarchy in Hungarian Literature', in Gerö (ed.),
Austro-Hungarian Monarchy
, pp. 192–216, here p. 196.

48
. For a useful compilation of country-by-country studies, see Marian Kent (ed.),
The Great Powers and the End of the Ottoman Empire
(London, 1984).

49
. Williamson,
Austria-Hungary
, pp. 59–61; Bridge,
From Sadowa to Sarajevo
, pp. 211–309.

50
. The text of the Three Emperors' League treaty (1881 version) and separate protocol may be consulted in Bridge,
From Sadowa to Sarajevo
, pp. 399– 402.

51
. Cited in ibid., p. 141. But see also Ernst R. Rutkowski, ‘Gustav Graf Kálnoky. Eine biographische Skizze',
Mitteilungen des Österreichischen Staatsarchivs
, 14 (1961), pp. 330–43.

52
. Kálnoky memorandum to Taaffe, September 1885, cited in Bridge,
From Sadowa to Sarajevo
, p. 149.

53
. Edmund Glaise von Horstenau,
Franz Josephs Weggefährte: das Leben des Generalstabschefs, Grafen Beck nach seinen Aufzeichnungen und hinterlassenen Dokumenten
(Zurich, Vienna, 1930), p. 391.

54
. Bridge,
From Sadowa to Sarajevo
, p. 263.

55
. Kosztowits to Tets van Goudriaan, Belgrade, 22 Janury 1906, NA, 2.05.36, doc. 10, Rapporten aan en briefwisseling met het Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken.

56
. For an illuminating discussion of these agreements, based on the memoirs and diaries of the Bulgarian diplomat Christophor Khesapchiev, see Kiril Valtchev Merjanski, ‘The Secret Serbian-Bulgarian Treaty of Alliance of 1904 and the Russian Policy in the Balkans before the Bosnian Crisis', MA thesis, Wright State University, 2007, pp. 30–31, 38–9, 41–2, 44, 50–51, 53–78. See also Constantin Dumba,
Memoirs of a Diplomat
, trans. Ian F. D. Morrow (London, 1933), pp. 137–9; Miloš Bogičević,
Die auswärtige Politik Serbiens 1903–1914
(3 vols., Berlin, 1931), vol. 3, p. 29.

57
. For a classic discussion of this problem, see Solomon Wank, ‘Foreign Policy and the Nationality Problem in Austria-Hungary, 1867–1914',
Austrian History Yearbook
, 3 (1967), pp. 37–56.

58
. Pomiankowski to Beck, Belgrade, 17 February 1906, cited in Günther Kronenbitter,
‘Krieg im Frieden'. Die Führung der k.u.k. Armee und die Grossmachtpolitik Österreich-Ungarns 1906–1914
(Munich, 2003), p. 327.

59
. ‘Konzept der Instruktion für Forgách anlässlich seines Amtsantrittes in Belgrad', Vienna, 6 July 1907, in Solomon Wank (ed.),
Aus dem Nachlass Aehrenthal. Briefe und Dokumente zur österreichisch-ungarischen Innen- und Aussenpolitik 1885–1912
(2 vols., Graz, 1994), vol. 2, doc. 377, pp. 517–20, here p. 518.

60
. Solomon Wank, ‘Aehrenthal's Programme for the Constitutional Transformation of the Habsburg Monarchy: Three Secret Memoires',
Slavonic and East European Review
, 42 (1963), pp. 513–36, here p. 515.

61
. On the background to the annexation, see Bernadotte E. Schmitt,
The Annexation of Bosnia 1908–1909
(Cambridge, 1937), pp. 1–18.

62
. Okey,
Habsburg Monarchy
, p. 363.

63
. Holger Afflerbach,
Der Dreibund. Europäische Grossmacht- und Allianzpolitik vor dem Ersten Weltkrieg
(Vienna, 2002), p. 629.

64
. N. Shebeko,
Souvenirs. Essai historique sur les origines de la guerre de 1914
(Paris, 1936), p. 83.

65
. Harold Nicolson,
Die Verschwörung der Diplomaten. Aus Sir Arthur Nicolsons Leben 1849–1928
(Frankfurt am Main, 1930), pp. 301–2; Williamson,
Austria-Hungary
, pp. 68–9; Schmitt,
The Annexation of Bosnia
, pp. 49–60; a contemporary account confirming this view: Baron M. de Taube,
La politique russe d'avant-guerre et la fin de l'empire des Tsars
(Paris, 1928), pp. 186–7.