The Sleepwalkers (108 page)

71
. Bethmann Hollweg to Eisendecher, 26 December 1911 and 23 March 1913, both cited in Konrad H. Jarausch, ‘The Illusion of Limited War: Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg's Calculated Risk, July 1914',
Central European History
, 2/1(1969), pp. 48–76.

72
. Cecil,
Wilhelm II
, vol. 2, p. 195.

73
. Falkenhayn to Hanneken, 29 January 1913, cited in Holger Afflerbach,
Falkenhayn: Politisches Denken und Handeln im Kaiserreich
(Munich, 1994), p. 102 (Falkenhayn would become minister of war on 7 June 1913).

74
. Ibid., p. 76.

75
. On the primacy of civilian leaders in 1914 Europe, see Marc Trachtenberg, ‘The Coming of the First World War: A Reassessment', in id.,
History and Strategy
(Princeton, 1991), pp. 47–99.

76
. Anon.,
Deutsche Weltpolitik und kein Krieg!
(Berlin, 1913).

77
. Hildebrand,
Das vergangene Reich
, p. 278.

78
. Strachan,
First World War
, p. 33.

79
. On German policy options, see Hildebrand,
Das vergangene Reich,
pp. 277–82.

80
. Mehmet Yerçil, ‘A History of the Anatolian Railway, 1871–1914', PhD thesis, Cambridge, 2010.

81
. Marschall von Biberstein to Bethmann, Constantinople, 4 December 1911,
GP
, vol. 30, doc. 10987.

82
. Carl Mühlmann,
Deutschland und die Türkei 1913–1914. Die Berufung der deutschen Militärmission nach der Türkei 1913, das deutsch-türkische Bündnis 1914 und der Eintritt der Türkei in den Weltkrieg
(Berlin, 1929), p. 5.

83
. Yerçil, ‘Anatolian Railway', p. 91.

84
. Ibid., pp. 95–120.

85
. Helmut Mejcher, ‘Oil and British Policy Towards Mesopotamia',
Middle Eastern Studies
, 8/3 (1972), pp. 377–91, esp. pp. 377–8.

86
. Cited in J. C. G. Röhl,
Wilhelm II. The Kaiser's Personal Monarchy, 1888–1900
, trans. Sheila de Bellaigue (Cambridge, 2004), p. 953.

87
. On German interest in pan-Islamism as an instrument of foreign policy, see Sean McMeekin,
The Berlin–Baghdad Express. The Ottoman Empire and Germany's Bid for World Power, 1898–1918
(London, 2010), pp. 7–53.

88
. Fischer,
Griff nach der Weltmacht
, p. 54.

89
. Herbert Feis,
Europe, The World's Banker 1870–1914
(New York, 1939), p. 53; Ulrich Trumpener,
Germany and the Ottoman Empire 1914–1918
(Princeton, 1968), pp. 3–11; Harry N. Howard,
The Partition of Turkey, 1913–1923
(Norman, 1931), pp. 49–50.

90
. Hildebrand,
Das vergangene Reich
, pp. 281–2.

91
. On ‘Goltz Pascha' and other German military advisers in Constantinople before Liman, see Bernd F. Schulte,
Vor dem Kriegsausbruch 1914. Deutschland, die Türkei und der Balkan
(Düsseldorf, 1980), pp. 17–38.

92
. Mühlmann,
Deutschland und die Türkei
, pp. 10–11; Hildebrand,
Das vergangene Reich
, p. 297.

93
. Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg,
Betrachtungen zum Weltkriege
(2 vols., Berlin, 1919), vol. 1, pp. 88–9.

94
. On the officially inspired press campaign in
Novoye Vremya
, see David MacLaren McDonald,
United Government and Foreign Policy in Russia, 1900–1914
(Cambridge, MA, 1992), p. 191; on the determination of the Ottoman authorities to use the German mission to improve their armed forces and thereby guard against further annexations, see Sverbeyev (Russian ambassador to Berlin) to Sazonov, 16 January 1914,
IBZI
, series 3, vol. 1, doc. 21, pp. 22–3.

95
. Tatishchev to Nicholas II, Berlin, 6 November 1913, GARF, Fond 601, op. 1, del 746 (2).

96
. Cited from Bazarov's report of 16 December 1913, in Fischer,
War of Illusions
, p. 334. How Bazarov learned of the content of this speech is unclear.

97
. Pourtalès to German Foreign Office, 28 November and 5 December 1913,
GP
, vol. 38, docs. 15457, 15466; Mühlmann,
Deutschland und die Türkei
, p. 12.

98
. Cited in Lichnowsky,
My Mission to London
, p. 14.

99
. Bovykin,
Iz istorii vozniknoveniya
, pp. 125–6; Fischer,
War of Illusions
, pp. 147–8.

100
. Sazonov to Demidov (Russian minister in Athens), St Petersburg, 16 October 1912, with copies to Constantinople, Paris and London; Sazonov to Girs, St Petersburg, 18 October 1912; Sazonov to Russian ambassadors in Paris, London, Berlin, Vienna and Rome, 5 October 1912, all in AVPRI, Fond 151 (PA), op. 482, d. 130, ll. 14, 20, 22.

101
. Sukhomlinov to Neratov, 11 August 1911,
IBZI
series 3, vol. 1, doc. 310, pp. 375–8, here p. 376.

102
. Sazonov to Izvolsky, 4 November 1912 (copies to London and Constantinople); Sazonov to Girs (ambassador in Constantinople), ‘secret telegram', St Petersburg, 2 November 1912, both in AVPRI, Fond 151 (PA), op. 482, d. 130, ll. 96, 87.

103
. Bobroff,
Roads to Glory
, pp. 52–3.

104
. Sazonov to Kokovtsov and service chiefs, 12 November 1912, cited in ibid., p. 55.

105
. Sazonov to Nicholas II, 23 November 1912, cited in Bovykin,
Iz istorii vozniknoveniya
, p. 126.

106
. Ia. Zakher, ‘Konstantinopol i prolivy',
KA
, 6 (1924), pp. 48–76, here p. 55, and 7 (1924), pp. 32–54.

107
. Bobroff,
Roads to Glory
, pp. 76–95.

108
. Sazonov to Russian chargé d'affaires, London, 7 December 1913, in B. von Siebert (ed.),
Graf Benckendorffs diplomatischer Schriftwechsel
(Berlin, 1928), vol. 3, doc. no. 982, pp. 208–9.

109
. D. C. B. Lieven,
Russia and the Origins of the First World War
(London, 1983), p. 47; Etter (Russian chargé d'affaires, London) to Sazonov, London, 14 January 1914,
IBZI
, series 3, vol. 1, doc. 3, pp. 2–3.

110
. Louis Mallet to Edward Grey, London, 23 March 1914, TNA FO 800/80; Great Britain, House of Commons Debates, 1914, vol., 59 cols. 2169–70, both cited in William I. Shorrock, ‘The Origin of the French Mandate in Syria and Lebanon: The Railroad Question, 1901–1914',
International Journal of Middle East Studies
, 1/2 (1970), pp. 133–53, here p. 153; see also Stuart Cohen, ‘Mesopotamia in British Strategy, 1903–1914',
International Journal of Middle East Studies
, 9/2 (1978), pp. 171–81, esp. pp. 174–7.

111
. Note of understanding between HE Khourshid Pasha, minister of the navy, in the name of the Ottoman government and Admiral Limpus, 25 May 1912, Limpus Papers. Caird Library, NMM, LIM/12; on Limpus's appointment, see also Paul G. Halpern,
The Mediterranean Naval Situation, 1908–1914
(Cambridge, MA, 1971), p. 321.

112
. See ‘Instructions for Hallifax Bey', 11 May 1914, ibid., LIM/9.

113
. Limpus to Ottoman Admiralty, 5 June 1912, ibid., LIM 8/1 (letter-book), fos. 63–7.

114
. Limpus to Ottoman Admiralty, 5 June 1912, ibid., LIM 8/1 (letter-book), fos. 68–9.

115
. Delcassé to Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 29 January 1914, AMAE NS, Russie 42, fos. 223–4; see also Izvolsky to Sazonov, Paris, 15 January 1914,
IBZI
, series 3, vol. 1, doc. 12, pp. 12–14, reporting French opposition to a Russian financial boycott of the Ottoman Empire.

116
. lzvolski to Sazonov, Paris, 18 December 1913; Izvolski to Sazonov, Paris, 18 December 1913, in Stieve (ed.),
Der diplomatische Schriftwechsel Izwolskis
, vol. 3, docs. 1179, 1181, pp. 425–5, 428–31; Dülffer, Kröger and Wipplich.
Vermiedene Kriege
, pp. 663–4.

117
. Sazonov to Benckendorff, St Petersburg, 11 December 1913, in Benno Siebert (ed.),
Benckendorffs diplomatischer Schriftwechsel
(3 vols., Berlin, 1928), vol. 3, doc. 991, p. 217.

118
. On this report, see McDonald,
United Government
, p. 193; on the ‘focusing' effect of the Liman affair, see Strachan,
First World War
, p. 61.

119
. M. Pokrowski,
Drei Konferenzen. Zur Vorgeschichte des Krieges
, trans. Anon ([Berlin], 1920), pp. 34, 38.

120
. Ibid., p. 42.

121
. Hildebrand,
Das vergangene Reich
, p. 298.

122
. Pokrowski,
Drei Konferenzen
, pp. 39, 41; on Sazonov's role in these discussions, see Horst Linke,
Das Zarische Russland and der Erste Weltkrieg. Diplomatie and Kriegsziele 1914–1917
(Munich, 1982), p.22.

123
. Buchanan to Grey, 3 April 1914, cited in Lieven,
Russia and the Origins
, p. 197.

124
. Concluding marginal comment to Pourtalès to Bethmann, St Petersburg, 25 February 1914,
GP
, vol. 39, doc. 15841, p. 545; see also the discussion in Dülffer, Kröger and Wippich,
Vermiedene Kriege
, p. 670.

125
. Cited in McDonald,
United Government
, p. 193.

126
. Sergei Dmitrievich Sazonov,
Fateful Years, 1909–96: The Reminiscences of Serge Sazonov
, trans. N. A. Duddington (London, 1928), p. 80.

127
. Liszkowski,
Zwischen Liberalismus und Imperialismus
.
Die Zaristische Aussenpolitik vor dem Ersten Weltkrieg im Urteil Miljukovs und der Kadettenpartei, 1905–1914
(Stuttgart, 1974), pp. 224–5.

128
. Mallet to Grey (no. 400), 2 June 1914, and minutes by Russell and Crowe, 9 and 14 June 1914, cited in Thomas Otte,
Foreign Office Mind
, pp. 378–9.

129
. Lieven,
Russia and the Origins
, pp. 42–6; see also Bovykin,
Iz istorii vozniknoveniya
, p. 129.

130
. Bobroff,
Roads to Glory
, p. 151; id., ‘Behind the Balkan Wars', p. 78.

131
. ‘Journal der Sonderkonferenz, 8. Februar 1914', in Pokrowski,
Drei Konferenzen
, pp. 47, 52.

132
. Ibid., pp. 52–3.

133
. Bovykin,
Iz istorii vozniknoveniya
, p. 128.

134
. Stephen Schröder,
Die englisch-russische Marinekonvention
(Göttingen, 2006), pp. 97–101; Linke,
Das Zarische Russland
, pp. 28–30.

135
. Cited in Schröder,
Die englisch-russische Marinekonvention
, p. 128.

136
. William A. Renzi, ‘Great Britain, Russia and the Straits, 1914–1915',
Journal of Modern History
, 42/1 (1970), pp. 1–20, here pp. 2–3; Mustafa Aksakal,
The Ottoman Road to War in 1914. The Ottoman Empire and the First World War
(Cambridge, 2008), p. 46.

137
. Sazonov to Hartwig, cited in Friedrich Stieve,
Iswolski and der Weltkrieg, auf Gund der neuen Dokumenten-Veröffentlichung des Deutschen Auswärtigen Amtes
(Berlin, 1924), p. 178.

138
. Guillaume to Davignon, Paris, 14 April 1914, MAEB AD, France 11, Correspondance politique – légations.

139
. On the centrality of this idea to Sazonov's thinking, see Bobroff,
Roads to Glory
, pp. 151–6.

140
. John H. Herz, ‘Idealist Internationalism and the Security Dilemma',
World Politics
, 2/2 (1950), pp. 157–180, here p. 157; on the relevance of this problem to the crisis of 1914, see Jack L. Snyder, ‘Perceptions of the Security Dilemma in 1914', in Robert Jervis, Richard Ned Lebow and Janice Gross Stein,
Psychology and Deterrence
(Baltimore, 1989), pp. 153–79; Klaus Hildebrand, ‘Julikrise 1914: Das europäische Sicherheitsdilemma. Betrachtungen über den Ausbruch des Ersten Weltkrieges',
Geschichte in Wissenschaft und Unterricht
, 36 (1985), pp. 469–502; Gian Enrico Rusconi,
Rischio 1914. Come si decide una guerra
(Bologna, 1987), pp. 171–87.

141
. Nicolson to Cartwright, London, 18 March 1912, TNA, FO, 800/354, fos. 253–4.

142
. Sazonov,
Les Années fatales
, p. 63.

143
. Bertie to Grey, Paris, 26 November 1912, in
BD
, vol. 9/2, doc. 280, p. 206.

144
. Prince Max von Lichnowksy,
Heading for the Abyss
(New York, 1928), pp. 167–8, italics as in original.

145
. Ibid., pp. 167–8, italics as in original.

146
. Cambon to Poincaré, London, 4 December 1912,
DDF
, 3rd series, vol. 4, doc. 622, pp. 642–3; see also Wilson, ‘The British Démarche', p. 555.

147
. Schroeder, ‘Embedded Conterfactuals', p. 37.

148
. Report of a conversation with Witte by a special agent of the Hamburg-Amerika Line, forwarded in Müller to Bethmann Hollweg, Hamburg, 21 February 1913, PA-AA, R 10137, Allgemeine Angelegenheiten Russlands, 1 January 1907–31 December 1915; for another report arguing that war was popular only with a small part of the Russian elite, see Kohlhaas (German consul-general in Moscow), memorandum, Moscow, 3 December 1912, PA-AA, R 10895.

149
. On this tendency in British policy, see Christopher John Bartlett,
British Foreign Policy in the Twentieth Century
(London, 1989), p. 20; Paul W. Schroeder, ‘Alliances, 1815–1914: Weapons of Power and Tools of Management', in Klaus Knorr (ed.),
Historical Dimension of National Security Problems
(Lawrence, KS, 1976), pp. 227–62, here p. 248; Christel Gade,
Gleichgewichtspolitik oder Bündnispflege? Maximen britischer Aussenpolitik (1909–1914)
(Göttingen, 1997), p. 22; on France's abandonment of a ‘balance of power' policy, see Bovykin,
Iz istorii vozniknoveniya
, p. 133.

150
. Grey to Bertie, London, 4 December 1912,
BD
, vol. 9/2, doc. 328, p. 244; Grey said much the same to Ambassador Buchanan in St Petersburg, see Grey to Buchanan, 17 February 1913, ibid., doc. 626, p. 506.

151
. On British suspicion of Austrian designs, the assumption that Vienna was a satellite of Berlin and the dysfunctionality of the Austro-Hungarian system, see Kiessling,
Gegen den grossen Krieg?
, pp. 127–9; Strachan,
First World War
, p. 81.

152
. Katrin Boeckh,
Von den Balkankriegen zum Ersten Weltkrieg. Kleinstaatenpolitik und ethnische Selbstbestimmung auf dem Balkan
(Munich, 1996), pp. 121, 131; V. N. Strandmann,
Balkanske Uspomene
, trans. from the Russian into Serbian by Jovan Kachaki (Belgrade, 2009), p. 244; Pašić to Sazonov, 2 February 1914,
IBZI
, series 3, vol. 1, doc. 161, pp. 149–50. On these deliveries, which took some time to work their way through the Russian system: Sukhomlinov to Sazonov, 30 March 1914; Sazonov to Hartwig, St Petersburg, 9 April 1914; Sazonov to Hartwig, St Petersburg, 14 April 1914; Hartwig to Sazonov, 28 April 1914 – all in
IBZI
, series 1, vol. 1, doc. 161, pp. 149–50; ibid., series 1, vol. 2, docs. 124, 186, 218, 316, pp. 124, 198, 227–8 and 309.

153
. Miranda Vickers,
The Albanians. A Modern History
(London and New York, 1999), p. 70.

154
. Mark Mazower,
The Balkans
(London, 2000), pp. 105–6.

155
. Notes on conversation with André Panafieu by Jean Doulcet, secretary at the French embassy in St Petersburg, St Petersburg, 11 December [1912], AMAE, Papiers Jean Doulcet, vol. 23, Notes personnelles, 1912–1917; Strandmann,
Balkanske Uspomene
, p. 239.

156
. Nicolson to Hardinge, London, 1 February 1912, cited in Richard Langhorne, ‘Anglo-German Negotiations Concerning the Future of the Portuguese Colonies, 1911–1914',
Historical Journal,
16/2 (1973), pp. 361– 87, here p. 371.

157
. Schoen to Bethmann Hollweg, Paris, 22 March 1912,
GP
, vol. 31, doc. 11520, pp. 396–401, here pp. 400–401.

158
. Sazonov,
Les Années fatales
, p. 61.

159
. Bethmann,
Betrachtungen zum Weltkrieg
, vol. 2, p. 133.

160
. On the ‘hardening' of officer masculinity before 1914, see Markus Funck, ‘Ready for War? Conceptions of Military Manliness in the Prusso-German Officer Corps before the First World War', in Karen Hagemann and Stephanie Schüler-Springorum (eds.),
Home/Front. The Military, War and Gender in Twentieth-Century Germany
(New York, 2002), pp. 43–68.

161
. Rosa Mayreder, ‘Von der Männlichkeit', in Mayreder,
Zur Kritik der Weiblichkeit
, Essays ed. Hana Schnedl (Munich, 1981), pp. 80–97, here p. 92.

162
. Christopher E. Forth,
The Dreyfus Affair and the Crisis in French Masculinity
(Baltimore, 2004); see also the essays in Hagemann and Schüler-Springorum (eds.),
Home/Front
, esp. Karen Hagemann, ‘Home/Front.The Military,Violence and Gender Relations in the Age of the World Wars', pp. 1–42; on elite masculinities in Anglo-German comparison, see Sonja Levsen, ‘Constructing Elite Identities. University Students, Military Masculinity and the Consequences of the Great War in Britain and Germany',
Past & Present
, 198/1 (2008), pp. 147–83; on tensions within hegemonic models of masculinity, Mark Connellan, ‘From Manliness to Masculinities',
Sporting Traditions
, 17/2 (2001), pp. 46–63.

163
. Samuel R.Williamson, ‘Vienna and July: The Origins of the Great War Once More', in id. and Peter Pastor (eds.),
Essays on World War I: Origins and Prisoners of War
(New York, 1983), pp. 9–36, esp. pp. 13–14.

164
. Strandmann,
Balkanske Uspomene
, p. 241.

165
. Hugo Hantsch,
Leopold Graf Berchtold. Grandseigneur und Staatsmann
(2 vols., Graz, 1963), vol. 2, pp. 374, 455, 475 n. 14, 500, 520.

166
. Strandmann,
Balkanske Uspomene
, p. 244.

167
. Joachim Radkau,
Das Zeitalter der Nervosität. Deutschland zwischen Bismarck und Hitler
(Munich, 1998), pp. 396–7.

168
. Georg Jellinek,
System der subjektiven Öffentlichen Rechte
(Freiburg. 1892), pp. 8–17, 21–8; on Jellinek's ‘normative Kraft des Faktischen', see Oliver Lepsius,
Besitz und Sachherrschaft im öffentlichen Recht
(Tübingen, 2002), pp. 176–9.