The Myth of Monogamy: Fidelity and Infidelity in Animals and People (43 page)

73 Of the five males that died: Ibid.

73 Among blue tits, for example: Ibid.

74 Dominant male cattle egrets: M. Fujioka and S. Yamagishi. 1981. Extramarital and pair copulations in the cattle egret.
Auk
98: 134-144; P. C. Frederick. 1987. Extrapair copulations in the mating system of white ibis
(Eudocimus albus). Behaviour
100: 170-201.

74 Not only that, but EPCs: S. M. Smith. 1988. Extra-pair copulations in black-capped chickadees: the role of the female.
Behaviour
107: 15-23.

74 Accordingly, older male red-winged blackbirds: P. J. Weatherhead and P. T. Boag. 1995. Pair and extra-pair mating success relative to male quality in red-winged blackbirds.
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
37: 81-91.

74 A similar age-related pattern: E. Roskaft. 1983. Male promiscuity and female adultery by the rook
Corvus frugilegus Ornis Scandinavica
14: 175-179.

75 In the previous chapter, we encountered: D. Hasselquist, S. Bensch, and T. von Schantz. 1996. Correlation between male song repertoire, extra-pair paternity and offspring survival in the great reed warbler.
Nature
381: 229-232.

75 In the case of bilaterally symmetrical creatures: Leigh Van Valen. 1962. A study of fluctuating asymmetry.
Evolution
16: 125-142; P. A. Parsons. 1990. Fluctuating asymmetry: an epigenetic measure of stress.
Biological Reviews
65: 131-145.

76 One was titled: A. Mailer. 1992. Female swallow preference for symmetrical male sexual ornament.
Nature
357: 238-240

76 The second study was titled: A. Mailer. 1992. Parasites differentially increase the degree of fluctuating asymmetry in secondary sexual characteristics.
Journal of Evolutionary Biology 5:
691-700.

76 It does: More symmetry equals better looking: S. W. Gangestad, R. Thornhill, and R. A. Yeo. 1994. Facial attractiveness, developmental stability, and fluctuating asymmetry.
Ethology and Sociobiology
15: 73-85.

76 Not only that, but symmetrical men: R. Thornhill and S. W. Gangestad. 1994. Fluctuating asymmetry and human sexual behavior.
Psychological Science 5:
297-302.

76 Women even report more orgasms: R. Thornhill, S. W. Gangestad, and

R. Comer. 1996. Human female orgasm and mate fluctuating asymmetry.
Animal

Behaviour
50: 1601-1615.

NOTES 207

77 So, when it comes to already-paired females: S. W. Gangestad and R. Thornhill. 1997. The evolutionary psychology of extrapair sex: the role of fluctuating asymmetry.
Evolution and Human Behavior
18: 69-88.

77 The suggestion has even been made: G. F. Miller. 2000.
The Mating Mind.
New York: Doubleday.

78 As a result, a female is well advised: R J. Weatherhead and R. J. Robertson, 1979. Offspring quality and the polygyny threshold: "The sexy son hypothesis."
The American Naturalist
113: 201-208.

78 But the offspring of preferred males: T. M. Jones, R. J. Quinnell, and

A. Balmford. 1998. Fisherian flies: the benefits of female choice in a lekking sandfly.
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B
265: 1-7.

79 When researchers from the University of Oslo: E. Cunningham and T. Birkhead. 1997. Female roles in perspective.
Trends in Ecology and Evolution
12: 337-338.

79 Not only that, but younger females: L. A. Dugatkin and J. Godin. 1992. Reversal of female mate choice by copying in the guppy
(Poecilia reticulata). Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B
249: 179-184.

79 Males swallows whose forked tails: A. R Moller. 1994.
Sexual Selection and the Barn Swallow.
New York: Oxford University Press.

79 At the same time, the number of biological young: N. Saino, C. P. Rimmer, H. Ellegren, and A. P. M0ller. 1997. An experimental study of paternity and tail ornamentation in the barn swallow
(Hirundo rustica) Evolution
51: 562-570.

79 Males engaging in EPCs: A. P. M0ller. 1988. Badge size in the house sparrow
Passer domesticus:
effects of intra- and intersexual selection.
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 22:
373-378.

80 A comparable finding applies: N. T. Burley, D. A. Enstrom, and L. Chitwood. 1994. Extra-pair relations in zebra finches: differential male success results from female tactics.
Animal Behaviour
48: 1031-1041.

80 Again, red is desirable: N. T. Burley, P. G. Parker, and K. Lundy. 1996. Sexual selection and extrapair fertilization in a socially monogamous passerine, the zebra finch
(Taeniopygia guttata). Behavioral Ecology 7:
218-226.

80 The findings are that: E.g., R. G. Edwards. 1955. Selective fertilization following the use of sperm mixtures in the mouse.
Nature
175: 215-223; R. A. Beatty. 1951. Fertility and mixed semen from different rabbits.
Journal of Reproduction and Fertility
1: 52-60; P. A. Martin and P. J. Dziuk. 1977. Assessment of relative fertility of males (cockerels and boars) by competitive mating.
Journal of Reproduction and Fertility
49: 323-329.

81 Columbian ground squirrel females: J. O. Murie. 1995. Mating behavior of Columbian ground squirrels: I. Multiple mating by females and multiple paternity.
Canadian Journal of Zoology
73: 1819-1826.

208
THE MYTH OF MONOGAMY

81 In another species of ground squirrel: D. E. Boellstorff, D. H. Owings, M. C T. Penedo, and M. J. Hersek. 1994. Reproductive behaviour and multiple paternity of California ground squirrels.
Animal Behaviour
47: 1057-1064.

82 In one study, detailed measurements: A. F. Dixson and N. I. Mundy. 1994. Sexual behaviour, sexual swelling and penile evolution in chimpanzees
(Fan troglodytes). Archives of Sexual Behavior
23: 267-280.

82 In an article entitled: T. Birkhead, A. Mailer, and W. J. Sutherland. 1993. Why do females make it so difficult to fertilize their eggs?
Journal of Theoretical Biology
161:51-60.

83 It emphasizes, as has been traditional: W. G. Eberhard. 1998. Female roles in sperm competition. In
Sperm Competition and Sexual Selection,
ed. T. Birkhead and A. Mailer. San Diego: Academic Press.

83 But in fact, as Eberhard points out [subsequent quote]: Ibid.

83 William Eberhard, one last time: W. Eberhard. 1994. Evidence for widespread courtship during copulation in 131 species of insects and spiders.
Evolution
48: 711-733.

84 Tempting as it is to attribute this: L. W. Simmons, P. Stockley, R. L. Jackson, and G. A. Parker. 1996. Sperm competition or sperm selection: no evidence for female influence over paternity in yellow dung flies
Scatophagia stercoraria. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
38: 199-206.

85 According to master myth-recounter Thomas Bulfinch [subsequent quote]: T. Bulfinch. 1855/1934.
Bulfinch's Mythology.
New York: Modern Library.

chapter
4
Undermining the Myth: Females (Other Considerations)

89 In a now-classic and much-cited study: A. J. Bateman. 1948 Intra-sexual selection in
Drosophila. Heredity 2:
349-368.

89 Indian crested porcupines copulate: Z. Sever and J. Mendelssohn. 1988. Copulation as a possible mechanism to maintain monogamy in porcupines,
Hystrix indica. Animal Behaviour
36: 1541-1542.

90 Newlywed kittiwake gulls copulate: I. W. Chardine, cited in Hunter et al. 1993. Why do females copulate repeatedly with one male?
Trends in Ecology and Evolution
8: 21-26.

91 Red-billed gulls, studied off the coast of New Zealand: J. A. Mills. 1994. Extra-pair copulations in the red-billed gull: females with high-quality, attentive males resist.
Behaviour
128: 41-64.

92 The technical article describing this system: L. Wolf. 1975. Prostitution behavior in a tropical hummingbird.
Condor 77:
140-144.

NOTES 209

93 Indeed, only hive-owning males: E. W. Cronin and P. W. Sherman. 1977. A resoure-based mating system: the orange-rumped honeyguide.
The Living Bird Quarterly
15: 5-32.

93 Although there is little obvious benefit: M. A. Elgar. 1992. Sexual cannibalism in spiders and other invertebrates. In
Cannibalism: Ecology and Evolution Among Diverse Taxa,
ed. M. E. Elgar and B. J. Crespi. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

93 Male moths attract females: T. Eisner and J. Meinwald. 1995. The chemistry of sexual selection.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
92: 50-55.

94 The results were startling: P. Gagneux, D. S. Woodruff, and C. Boesch. 1997. Furtive mating in female chimpanzees.
Nature
387: 358-359.

95 An ethically troubling discovery: S. B. Hrdy. 1979.
The Langurs of Abu.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

96 This may be quite important: T. Nishida and K. Kawanaka. 1985. Within-group cannibalism by adult male chimpanzees.
Primates
26: 274-284.

96 She has since expanded that notion: S. B. Hrdy. 1981.
The Woman That Never Evolved.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

96 It is well documented that among many primates: B. B. Smuts. 1987. Sexual competition and mate choice. In
Primate Societies,
ed. D. Cheney, R. Seyfarth, B. Smuts, R. Wrangham, and T. Struhsaker. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

96 University of Michigan primatologist Barbara Smuts: B. B. Smuts. 1985.
Sex and Friendship in Baboons.
Hawthorne, NY: Aldine.

96 Given that, among primates in particular: D. P. Barash. 2001.
Revolutionary Biology: The new, gene-centered view of life.
New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.

97 So, if you are a male barn swallow: J. J. Soler, J. S. Cuervo, A. P. M0ller, and

F. de Lope. 1998. Nest building is a sexually selected behaviour in the barn swallow.
Animal Behaviour
56: 1435-1444.