Making War to Keep Peace (52 page)

4. Kosovo Report, 58.

5. John M.Goshko, “Bush Threatens Military Force if Serbs Attack Ethnic Albanians,”
Washington Post
, December 29, 1992.

6. “Conflict in the Balkans; Christopher's Remarks on Balkans: ‘Crucial Test,'” Reuters, in the
New York Times
, February 11, 1993.

7. Pierre Sane, secretary-general of Amnesty International, wrote, “It can be argued that the chronic neglect of the warning in these reports and the almost complete absence of redress for all Kosovo's people has been one of the chief catalysts for the current conflict.”
Kosovo: A Decade of Unheeded Warnings, Amnesty International's Concerns in Kosovo
, vol. 1,
May 1989 to March 1999
, Al Index: EUR 70/39/ 1999 and EUR 70/40/99, May 1999.

8. Noel Malcolm,
Kosovo: A Short History
(London: Papermac, 1998), 350.

9. Sabrina Ramet,
Balkan Babel: The Disintegration of Yugoslavia from the Death of Tito to the War for Kosovo
, 3rd ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1999), 51.

10. Not until 1996 did the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), which had been based in Switzerland, claim responsibility for any violent attacks in Kosovo. However, according to the Independent International Commission on Kosovo, the KLA's first violent action was the killing of a Serb policeman in 1995. See the commissions report,
Kosovo Report: Conflict, International Response, Lessons Learned
(Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2000), 51.

11. Ramet,
Balkan Babel
, 309.

12. Ibid.

13. UN Security Council Resolution 1146, (S/RES1146, January 28, 1998).

14. Amnesty International
Report on Yugoslavia, 1998
, covering the period from January to June 1998, http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGEURO10021998?open&of=ENG-EST.

15. Ibid.

16. Tyler Marshall, U.S. Tells Serbia Kosovo Violence Risks Reprisals,
Los Angeles Times
, Part A; page 1; March 8, 1998.
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia: Amnesty International's Current Recommendations Concerning the Crisis in Kosovo Province
.

17. Secretary of State Madeleine K. Albright and Italian Foreign Minister Lamberto Dini. Press Briefing at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Rome, Italy. Released by the Office of the Spokesman, U.S. Department of State, March 7, 1998.

18. The U.S. troops stationed in Macedonia were part of the UN Preventive Deployment Force (UNPREDEP).

19. Wesley K. Clark,
Waging Modern War
(New York: Public Affairs, 2001), 108.

20. Madeleine Albright,
Madame Secretary
(New York: Miramax, 2003), 406.

21. Ibid., 406.

22. Clark,
Waging Modern War
, 109.

23. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, Remarks on Kosovo at the Contact Group Ministerial, London, UK, March 10, 1998.

24. The Contact Group, consisting of Germany, France, Italy, Russia, the U.K., and the U.S., was initially established in 1992 as a diplomatic representative of the international community to deal with events in Bosnia.

25. Steven Erlanger, “Yugoslavs Try to Outwit Albright Over Sanctions,”
New York Times
, March 23, 1998.

26. News Summary, Associated Press, in the
New York Times
, April 1, 1998.

27. Ibid. Chinese representative Shed Guofeng is being quoted.

28. “Report on the Visit of Ambassador Sheffer to the Border Between the Former Republic of Macedonia and Kosovo” (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of State, April 7, 1999).

29. MiloÅ¡ević held a national referendum on whether to accept international mediation in the Kosovo crisis. Supposedly, the referendum had a 74 percent turnout and 95 percent of Serb voters rejected mediation. However, there were reports of fraud, and many ethnic Albanians boycotted the vote. See “Yugoslavia Warns of War,” Associated Press, April 24, 1998.

30. Thomas W. Lippman, “U.S. Pressures Allies on Yugoslavia,”
New York Times
, April 25, 1998.

31. The meeting took place on April 29, 1998. “Contact Group Imposes Embargo on Yugoslavia over Kosovo,” Agence France Presse, May 9, 1998.

32. Ibid.

33. Steven Erlanger, “Clinton Meets Delegation from Kosovo Seeking Talks,”
New York Times
, May 30, 1998.

34. Independent International Commission on Kosovo,
Kosovo Report
, 72.

35. Clark,
Waging Modern War
, 112.

36. William Drozdiak and John F. Harris, “U.S. Backs Europe on Serbia; EU Imposes Sanctions as NATO Options,”
Washington Post
, May 9, 1998.

37. “Blair Spells Out Tough Line on Kosovo,” Agence France Presse, June 6, 1998.

38. Ibid.

39. World News Digest,
Facts on File
, June 4, 1998.

40. Capt. Michael Doubleday, a Pentagon spokesman, said, “[E]very time there is a significant troop development, we are very concerned about questions like the desired end and what is the command and control structure”; Elizabeth Becker, “Pentagon Sees Risk in Going into Kosovo,”
New York Times
, February 11, 1999.

41. Ibid.

42. William Drozdiak, “NATO Plans Exercises to Pressure MiloÅ¡ević,”
Washington Post
, June 12, 1998.

43. David Hoffman, “MiloÅ¡ević to Meet Kosovo Moderate; Serb Visits Yeltsin, Yields on Talks,”
Washington Post
, June 17, 1998.

44. Clark,
Waging Modern War
, 120.

45. Craig Whitney, “France Urges Allies to Define Plan for Autonomy for Kosovo,”
New York Times
, June 25, 1998.

46. Craig Whitney, “Western Officials Say Accord on Kosovo Seems Uncertain,”
New York Times
, July 1, 1998.

47. John M. Goshko, “Security Council Urges Negotiations over Kosovo,”
Washington Post
, August 12, 1998.

48. This complaint was made by the German government. See Roger Cohen, “Kosovo Crisis Strains Relations Between the U.S. and Europe,”
New York Times
, November 10, 1998. The Cohen testimony can be found in
U.S. Policy and NATO Military Operations in Kosovo: Hearings Before the Committee on Armed Services, United States Senate
, July 20, 1999 (Washington: U.S. Govenment Printing Office, 2000), pp. 241–251.

49. Ibid.

50. UN Security Council Resolution 1199 (S/RES/1199, September 23, 1998).

51. Barbara Crossette, “Kosovo Rebels' Political Chief Calls for UN Representation,”
New York Times
, September 18, 1999, p. A3.

52. Human Rights Watch, “A Week of Terror in Drenica: Humanitarian Law Violations in Kosovo, 1999,” http://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/kosovo.

53. UN Security Council Resolution 1203 (S/RES/1203, October 24, 1998).

54. UN Security Council Resolution 1207 (S/RES/1207, November 17, 1998).

55. Jeffrey Smith and William Drozdiak, “Serbs' Offensive Was Meticulously Planned,”
Washington Post
, April 11, 1999.

56. Ibid.

57. Independent International Commission on Kosovo,
Kosovo Report
, 80.

58. Smith and Drozdaik, “Serbs' Offensive.”

59. Thomas W. Lippmann, “Deadline Set for Kosovo Accord; Threat of NATO Forces Underlies Feb. 19 Limit on Peace Talks,”
Washington Post
, January 30, 1999.

60. Editorial, “The Logic of Kosovo,”
New York Times
, May 2, 1999.

61. Human Rights Watch, “Under Orders: War Crimes in Kosovo: March to June 1999: An Overview,” http://www.hrw.org/reports/2001/kosovo.

62. Human Rights Watch, “War Crimes in Kosovo: Executive Summary,' http://www.hrw.org/reports/2001/kosovo/undword.htm.

63.
Erasing History: Ethnic Cleansing in Kosovo
(Washington, DC: U.S. Department of State, May 1999).

64. Independent International Commission on Kosovo,
Kosovo Report
, 90.

65. Smith and Drozdiak, “Serbs' Offensive.” 66. “Serbs Stage Rock Concert Against NATO Strikes,” Deutsche Presse-Agentur, April 4, 1999.

67. Hilary Mackenzie and Mike Trickey, “Serb Soldiers Deserting: U.S.: Antiwar Demonstrations Break Out in Third Yugoslavian City,”
Montreal Gazette
, May 20, 1999.

68. Eve-Ann Prentice and Michael Binyon, “Anti-War Mob Lynches Serbian Mayor,”
The Times
(London) May 20, 1999.

69. Ibid.

70. Jane Perlez, “Crisis in the Balkans: Overview; NATO Approves Naval Embargo Oil Going to Serbs,”
New York Times
, April 24, 1999.

71. Daniel Williams, “Serbia Yields to NATO Terms,”
Washington Post
, June 4, 1999.

72. Blaine Harden, “Crisis in the Balkans: Doing the Deal,”
New York Times
, June 6, 1999.

73. Ibid.

74. “Military Technical Agreement Between NATO and Yugoslavia,” Reuters, June 9, 1999.

75. Michael Dobbs, “MiloÅ¡ević Claims Victory, Lauds ‘Best Army in the World'”
Washington Post
, June 11, 1999.

76. John Ward Anderson, “Refugees Are Willing to Delay Trip Home; Many Waiting for NATO's Assurance of Safety,”
Washington Post
, June 11, 1999.

77. U.S. participation in Operation Allied Force, as a percentage of NATO total:

Sorties 60 %

Support (all types) 71 %

Electronic warfare 90 %

Strike 53 %

Intelligence/reconnaissance 90 %

 

Ordnance

Precision guided munitions 80 %

Cruise missiles 95 %

 

See statement of Secretary of defense William S. Cohen to the Senate Armed Services Committee, July 20, 1999. http://armed-services.senate.gov/statemnt/1999/990720wc.pdf.

78.
Ethnic Cleansing in Kosovo: An Accounting
, Executive Summary (Washington, DC: U.S. State Department, December 1999).

79. Ibid.

80. Ivo Daalder, “U.S. diplomacy Before the Kosovo War,” Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on European Affairs, September 28, 1999.

81. One day after MiloÅ¡ević was handed over to the International War Crimes Tribunal, “[i]nternational governments and organizations meeting in Brussels…pledged almost $1.3bn (£924m) in aid and loans to help rebuild the Yugoslav economy”(
BBC News
, “Yugoslavia Wins $1.3bn Aid Pledges,” June 29, 2001).

82. Serbia and Montenegro agreed to remain in the union for a period of three years, after which each would have the right to separate (International News, “New Serbia and Montenegro to Last at Least Three Years,” Agence France Presse, March 14, 2002).

83. The Accord on Principles in Relations Between Serbia and Montenegro was signed on March 14, 2002. See also Perparim Isufi, “Kosovars Jittery over Final Status,” Institute for War and Peace Reporting, November 14, 2002.

84. Ibid.

85. In Operation Joint Guardian, the United Kingdom contributed twelve thousand troops with headquarters in Pristina. Germany deployed eighty-five hundred troops in the southwest part of Kosovo, with the headquarters in Prizren. France deployed seven thousand troops in the northwestern sector, with headquarters in Kosovska Mitrovica. Italy contributed two thousand troops in the western part of Kosovo, with headquarters in Pec. The United States provided a force of approximately seven thousand in the southeastern part of Kosovo, as of June 11, 1999. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/joint_guardian.htm.

86. The Russians tried to fly in additional forces through Romanian, Hungarian, and Bulgarian airspace, and they attempted to negotiate the status of their forces in Kosovo after their presence was already established, http://www.kosovo.mod.uk/jointguardian.htm. See also, MOD briefing; Russian Foreign Minister Ivanov
claimed it was a mistake when Russian troops entered Pristina, June 12, 1999, http://www.kosovo.mod.uk/brief120699.htm.

87. Initial reports suggested Russia would contribute nine hundred troops. http://www.kosovo.mod.uk/brief160699.htm.

88. Judy Dempsey and Irena Guzelova, “Serb Attitude to Kosovo Election Seen as Test of Progress,”
Financial Times
(London), November 17, 2001.

89. Ibid.

90. “The Kosovo Election Process.”

91. Barbara Crossette, “Kosovo Rebels' Political Chief Calls for UN Representation,”
New York Times
, Section A; page 3, September 18, 1999.

92. Ivo H. Daalder and Michael E. O'Hanlon,
Winning Ugly: NATO's War to Save Kosovo
, (Washington, DC: Brookings, 2001), 91.

93. Ibid.

6. CONCLUSION: AFGHANISTAN AND IRAQ

1. John Stuart Mill,
Dissertations and Discussions: Political, Philosophical and Historical
, vol. 3 (London, 1875), 176. Reprinted from Mill, “A few Words on Non-Intervention,”
Fraser's Magazine
(December 1859).

2. President George W. Bush,
Presidential Address to the Nation
, October 7, 2001.

3. Kofi Annan, Transcript of Press Conference by Secretary-General Kofi Annan at Palais Des Nations, Geneva,
Press Release SG/SM? 8011/Rev.1
, November 1, 2001.

4. President Hamid Karzai, News Conference: President Bush and President Karzai,
CQ Transcripts Wire
, September 26, 2006.

5. In 2006, the UN Human Rights Commission was dismantled and renamed the UN Human Rights Council.

6. Allan Gerson, “Why We're There,
Washington Times
, April 30, 2003.

7. Condoleezza Rice, Condoleezza Rice Discusses President's National Security Strategy,
Office of the Press Secretary
, Waldorf Astoria Hotel, New York, New York, October 1, 2002.

8. Ibid.

9. Kofi Annan, interview by Owen Bennett-Jones,
BBC News
, September 16, 2004.