Making War to Keep Peace (48 page)

69. Elizabeth Drew,
On the Edge: The Clinton Presidency
(New York: Simon and Schuster, 1994), 317–320.

70. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, “Further Report of the Secretary-General submitted in pursuance of paragraphs 18 and 19 of Resolution 794 (1992), proposing that the mandate of UNOSOM II cover the whole country and include enforcement powers under chapter of the Charter,” S/25354, March 3, 1993, and addenda S/25354/Add.1, March 11, 1993, and S/25354/Add.2, March 22, 1993, paragraph 100, in Boutros-Ghali,
The United Nations and Somalia
, 255.

71. Ibid., 254.

72. See specifically paragraph A4 of UN Security Council Resolution 814, S/Res/814 (1993), March 26, 1993.

73. Michael Maren,
The Road to Hell
, 217–218.

74. In March 1993, a leadership transition occurred from UNITAF to UNOSOM II, but the public was not made aware of the shift in strategic direction because the operation in Somalia had dropped from the major news headlines. The polls showed that fewer people were responding, which meant that fewer people were following the events in Somalia. A report by the Aspen Institute stated that the number of people responding to the events in Somalia had dropped from 52 percent in January 1999 to 16 percent in June 2000. See Mackinnon,
U.S. Peacekeeping Policy Under Clinton
, 77.

75. Stuart Auerbach, “Gunmen in Mogadishu Battle Marines, Allies for Second Day,”
Washington Post
, February 26, 1993.

76. Daniel Williams and John Lancaster, “Somali Violence May Delay U.S. Withdrawal,”
Washington Post
, February 26, 1993.

77. UN Security Council Resolution 814, paragraphs 7 and 14.

78. Ibid., paragraph 14, 4(a)-(g). In her statement on the vote, Albright said, “Yet, we are certain of this: each element of the program for Somalia is necessary to its overall success and that country's recuperation. Through his Special Representative the Secretary-General must oversee the continued ceasefire, disarmament, and maintenance of security….” “Statement by Ambassador Madeleine K. Albright, United States Permanent Representative to the United Nations, in the Security Council, in explanation of the vote on the situation in Somalia,” USUN press release 37-(93), March 26, 1993.

79. “Further Report of the Secretary-General submitted in pursuance of paragraphs 18 and 19 of Resolution 794 (1992), proposing that the mandate of UNOSOM II cover the whole country and include enforcement powers under Chapter VII of the Charter,” S/25354, March 3, 1993, and addenda S/25354/Add.1, 11 March 1993, and S/25354/Add. 2, March 22, 1993, paragraph 92, in Boutros-Ghali,
The United Nations and Somalia
, 254.

80. Altogether, the Security Council charged Boutros-Ghali and Howe with “rehabilitating [the] political institutions and economy” of Somalia. UN Security Council Resolution 814, paragraph 4, March 26, 1993. One case study of Somalia concludes that “in Somalia, largely as a result of inattention at political levels, the
United States allowed its military forces to transform their original humanitarian mission into a coercive activity intended to enforce a peaceful settlement of the underlying political conflict by disarming factions in a particular section of the country.” Blechman and Wittes,
Defining Moment
, 14.

81. Paul Lewis, “UN Is Developing Control Center to Coordinate Growing Peacekeeping,”
New York Times
, March 28, 1993.

82. In a speech before the Los Angeles World Affairs Council, Clinton said, “We will stand up for our interests, but we will share burdens, where possible, through multilateral efforts to secure the peace, such as NATO, and a new voluntary UN rapid deployment force. In Bosnia, Somalia, Cambodia, and other torn areas of the world, multilateral action holds promise as never before, and the UN deserves full and appropriate contributions from all the major powers.” In “The 1992 Campaign; Excerpts from Clinton's Speech on Foreign Policy Leadership,”
New York Times
, August 14, 1992.

83. William Cran, writer, producer, and director, “Ambush in Mogadishu, “
Frontline
, Public Broadcasting System, Transcript #1704, September 28, 1998, 11.

84. Ambassador Robert Oakley, in Cran, “Ambush in Mogadishu,” 11.

85. Bolton, “Wrong Turn in Somalia,” 56.

86. “Statement by Ambassador Madeleine Albright”(press release).

87. See “Addis Ababa Agreement concluded at the first session of the Conference on National Reconciliation in Somalia, March 27, 1993,” in Boutros-Ghali,
The United Nations and Somalia
, 264.

88. Drew,
On the Edge
, 319.

89. Morton Halperin and David J. Scheffer,
Self-Determination in the New World Order
(Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1992).

90. A copy of this memo was passed to me confidentially.

91. Ibid.

92. Ashton B. Carter, William J. Perry, and John D. Steinbruner, “A New Concept of Collective Security,” A Report for the Brookings Institution. 1992 (Washington, DC).

93. Senator Richard Lugar, in Cran, “Ambush in Mogadishu,” 11.

94. Blechman and Wittes,
Defining Moment
. See also Halperin and Scheffer,
Self-Determination
.

95. Letter from President Clinton to congressional leaders, July 1, 1993.

96. “Executive summary of the report prepared by Professor Tom Farer of American University, Washington, D.C., on the June 5, 1993, attack on the United Nations forces in Somalia,” S/26351, August 24, 1993, in Boutros-Ghali,
The United Nations and Somalia
296–300, paragraph 15, 299. Mohammed Sahnoun was especially critical of the decision to target Aideed and of the “investigation” that preceded it. Farer's emphasis on Aideed's military forces was particularly significant in light of the Ranger disaster in Mogadishu.

97. Letter from President Clinton to congressional leaders, July 1, 1993.

98. General Anthony Zinni (director of operations for UNITAF, November 1992 to May 1993. After October 1993, assistant to the special envoy in Somalia, Robert Oakley, in negotiations with Aideed for a truce and the release of U.S. Ranger Michael Durant), interview in Cran, “Ambush in Mogadishu,” 7.

99. Robert Oakley, in Cran, “Ambush in Mogadishu,” 4, 15.

100. United Nations Operation in Somalia II,
United Nations
, last update, March 21, 1997

101. Ibid., 13.

102. “Executive summary of the report prepared by Professor Tom Farer of American University, Washington, D.C., on the June 5, 1993, attack on the United Nations forces in Somalia,” S/26351, August 24, 1993, in Boutros-Ghali,
The United Nations and Somalia
296–300, paragraph 15, 299. Mohammed Sahnoun was especially critical of the decision to target Aideed and of the “investigation” that preceded it. Farer's emphasis on Aideed's military forces was particularly significant in light of the Ranger disaster in Mogadishu.

103. Robert Oakley, interview in Cran, “Ambush in Mogadishu,” 8–9.

104. General Anthony Zinni (director of operations for UNITAF, November 1992 to May 1993. After October 1993, assistant to the special envoy in Somalia, Robert Oakley, in negotiations with Aideed for a truce and the release of U.S. Ranger Michael Durant), interview in Cran, “Ambush in Mogadishu,” 7.

105. “Letter dated 27 August from Ambassador Madeleine Albright, President of the UN Security Council to the Secretary-General concerning the Council's intention to study the recommendations in Professor Farer's report (Document 62) on the reestablishment of Somali Police Forces,” S/26375, August 29, 1993, in Boutros-Ghali,
The United Nations and Somalia
, 300–301. UN Security Council Resolution 865, S/Res/865(1993), September 22, 1993.

106. Captain Haad (sector commander for General Aideed's militia), in Cran, “Ambush in Mogadishu,” 14–15.

107. Specialist Jason Moore, U.S. Army Ranger (1992–95), in Cran, “Ambush in Mogadishu,” 15.

108. General Thomas Montgomery (ret.), deputy UN commander (1993–94), in Cran, “Ambush in Mogadishu,” 6.

109. Ibid., 6.

110. Drew,
On the Edge
, 321.

111. CIA special agent Gene Cullen, in Cran, “Ambush in Mogadishu,” 16.

112. Ibid., 17.

113. Patrick J. Sloyan, “A Look at…the Somalia Endgame; How the Warlord Outwitted Clinton's Spooks,”
Washington Post
, April 3, 1994.

114. Cran, “Ambush in Mogadishu,” 17.

115. General Thomas Montgomery (ret.), in Cran, “Ambush in Mogadishu,” 17.

116. A dramatic and carefully researched account of the firefight in Mogadishu was written by Mark Bowden:
Black Hawk Down: A Story of Modern War
(New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1999).

117. William Garrison, commander, Joint Special Operations Command, Hearing of the Senate Armed Services Committee, “U.S. Military Operations in Somalia,” May 12, 1994.

118. When the U.S. Marines returned to Somalia to help evacuate UN forces, they were armed with nonlethal weapons.

119. Jim O'Connell, “Members Call for More Consultation on Somalia After This Week's Big Battle,”
Roll Call
, October 7, 1993.

120. Cran, “Ambush in Mogadishu,” 29–30.

121. Senator Sam Nunn, Hearing of the Senate Armed Services Committee, “U.S. Military Operations in Somalia,” May 12, 1994.

122. Ibid.

123. Patrick J. Sloyan, “Full of Tears and Grief; For Elite Commandos, Operation Ended in Disaster,”
Newsday
, December 7, 1993, 6.

124. Sahnoun,
New Perspectives
; Boutros-Ghali,
The United Nations and Somalia
.

125. Senator Strom Thurmond, Hearing of the Senate Armed Services Committee, “U.S. Military Operations in Somalia,” May 12, 1994.

126. General Thomas Montgomery, former deputy commander of UN operations in Somalia, Hearing of the Senate Armed Services Committee, “U.S. Military Operations in Somalia,” May 12, 1994.

127. Madeleine Albright, Hearing of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, October 20, 1993.

128. Ibid.

129. Peter Tarnoff, Hearing of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, “U.S. Policy in Somalia,” October 19, 1993.

130. Howe, “The United States and United Nations in Somalia,” 47–62.

131. Michael Mandelbaum, “Foreign Policy As Social Work,”
Foreign Affairs
75, no. 1 (January/February, 1996): 16.

132. Madeleine Albright, in Charles Bierbauer, “Interview with Ambassador Madeleine Albright and Congressman Dave McCurdy,”
Newsmaker Saturday
, CNN transcripts, #172, June 12, 1993.

133. William Jefferson Clinton, “Press Conference by the President,” Washington, DC, October 14, 1993.

134. General Thomas Montgomery, former deputy commander of UN operations in Somalia, Hearing of the Senate Armed Services Committee, “U.S. Military Operations in Somalia,” May 12, 1994.

135. See Thomas Henriksen,
Clinton's Foreign Policy in Somalia, Bosnia, Haiti,
and North Korea
(Stanford: Hoover Institution, 1996), 11. “The introduction of elite U.S. combat forces, the militarization of the humanitarian mission, and the change in scope of American efforts were all undertaken without an adequate explanation to the public or to Congress. Thus, when disaster struck later in the Mogadishu streets, the American people were unprepared.”

136. Thomas Montgomery, interview in Cran, “Ambush in Mogadishu,” 1.

137. Ibid.

138. Kenneth Allard,
Somalia Operations: Lessons Learned
(Washington, DC: National Defense University Press, 1995). See also Colonel Kenneth Allard (ret.), interview in Cran, “Ambush in Mogadishu,” 5.

139. Walter B. Slocombe, nominee to be undersecretary of defense for policy, Hearing of the Senate Armed Services Committee, “Defense Nominations,” August 10, 1994.

140. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, “Further report of the Secretary-General on UNOSOM, submitted in Pursuance of Paragraph 14 of Resolution 897 (1994), with annex containing the text of the declaration issued by Somali political leaders in Nairobi on 24 March 1994,” S/1994/614, May 24, 1994, paragraph 22, in Boutros-Ghali,
The United Nations and Somalia
, 357.

141. Paul Lewis, “Report Faults Commanders of UN Forces in Somalia,”
New York Times
, May 20, 1994.

142. Barbara Crossette, “UN Falters in Post–Cold War Peacekeeping, But Sees Role as Essential,”
New York Times
, December 5, 1994.

143. Richard Haass,
Intervention: The Use of American Military Force in the Post–Cold War World
(Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1999), 155.

144. Bowden,
Black Hawk Down
, 413.

145. Ibid., 335–336.

146. See testimony of General Thomas Montgomery, former deputy commander of UN operations in Somalia, and General William Garrison, commander, Joint Special Operations Command, Senate Armed Services Committee Hearing, “U.S. Military Operations Committee in Somalia,” May 12, 1994.

147. John H. Cushman, Jr., “The Somalia Mission: Forces; How Powerful U.S. Units Will Work,”
New York Times
, October 8, 1993.

148. Harold E. Bullock,
Peace by Committee, Command and Control Issues in Multinational Peace Enforcement Operations
(Maxwell AFB, AL.: Air University Press, 1995).

149. Howe, “The United States and United Nations in Somalia,” 53.

150. Ibid.

151. Bowden,
Black Hawk Down
, 335–336.

152. General Joseph P. Hoar, Somalia-An Envoy's Perspective,
Joint Forces Quarterly
(Autumn 1993).

153. In a formal statement on October 7, President Clinton stated “We have obligations elsewhere…[it is not America's job to] rebuild Somalia society.” See Hyland,
Clinton's World
, 58.