When Elephants Weep: The Emotional Lives of Animals (40 page)

124 Marc Bekoff, "Kin Recognition and Kin Discrimination" (letter) Trends in Ecology and Evolution 7 (3), March 1992, p. 100.

125 Moss, Elephant Memories, pp. 85, 142-43, 171. 125 Kruuk, Spotted Hyena, pp. 249-50.

125 ". . . Norma, a young elephant . . ." Lewis, Elephant Tramp, pp. 128-29.

126 Terrace, Nim, pp. 228-29.

126 "Alaskan buffalo . . . playing on ice." Gary Paulsen, Winterdance: The Fine Madness of Running the Iditarod (New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1994), p. 193.

126 "Two grizzly bears . . ." Chadwick, Beast the Color of Winter, p. 70.

126 "Tiger cubs and leopards . . ." Singh, Tiger! Tiger!, pp. 11-1'h.

126 "The bonobo covers its eyes . . ." De Waal, Peacemaking, p. 195.

NOTES

126 ". . . domes of the Kremlin . . ." Jeffery Boswall, "Russia Is for the Birds," Discovei- (March 1987), p. 78.

127 ". . . Komodo dragon . . . played with a shovel . . ." Craven Hill, "Playtime at the Zoo," Zoo-Life 1: pp. 24—26.

127 ". . . alligator in Georgia . . ."James D. Lazell, Jr., and Numi C. Spitzer, "Apparent Play Behavior in an American Alhgator," Copeia (1977): p. 188.

127 ". . . Koko . . . pretends to brush her teeth . . ." Patterson and Linden, Education of Koko, picture caption.

127 ". . . 'That's a hat.' " Roger Fouts, interxiew by Susan McCarthy, December 10, 1993.

127 ". . . dolphins vied for . . ." Alpers, Dolphins, pp. 90-93.

127 ". . . play similar keep-away . . ." Norris, Dolphin Days, pp. 259-60.

127 "Beluga whales carry stones . . ." Fred Bruemmer, ''White Whales on Holiday,'' Natural Histofy (January 1986): pp. 40-49.

127 "Lions, both adults and cubs . . ." Schaller, Serengeti Lion, pp. 163-64.

127 ". . . dolphin teased a fish . . ." Alpers, Dolphins, p. 90.

127 "Ravens tease peregrines . . ." Houle, Wi?7gs for My Flight, p. 23.

128 ". . . crows may pull their tails . . ." Crumley, Wate7-s of the Wild Swan, pp. 53-54.

128 ". . . hyenas . . . catching and killing such a fox . . ." Macdonald, Running with the Fox, pp. 78-79. 128 "Sifaka lemurs . . ."Jolly, Lemur Behavior, p. 59.

128 ". . . cricket was taught to elephants . . ." Carrington, £/ep^«wfi-, pp. 216-17.

129 ". . . dolphins . . . foul play . . ." Pryor, Lads Before the Wind, pp. 66-67.

129 "The kangaroos preferred to wTestle and box . . ." Geoffrey Morey, The Lincoln Kangaroos (Philadelphia: Chilton Books, 1963), pp. 53-60.

130 "Tatu . . ." Rasa, Mongoose Watch, pp. 44-45, 142-44.

130 ". . . beavers and otters were present . . ." Hope Sawyer Buyukmihci, 77?e Hour of the Beaver (Chicago: Rand McNally & Co., 1971), pp. 97-98.

130 ". . . mangabey and red-tailed monkeys . . .'''Ghi^Xien, East of the Mountains of the Moon, p. 26.

130 Chadwick, Fate of the Elephant, pp. 423-24.

131 Bert Holldobler and Edward O. Wilson, The Afits (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press/Hanard University' Press, 1990), p. 370.

131 Henry Walter Bates, The Naturalist on the Rivei- Amazons: A Recoi'd of Adventures, Habits of Animals, Sketches of Brazilian and Indian Life, and Aspects of Nature under the Equator, During Eleven Years of Travel (New York: Humboldt Publishing Co., 1863), pp. 259-60.

Chapter 7: Rage, Dominance, and Cruelty in Peace and War

133 ". . . Cosimo de'Medici shut a giraffe . . ." Dagg and Foster, TT^e G/raj^^,

p. 3. 133 "WTiile aggression among animals is a favored topic . . ." Konrad Lorenz,

one of the founders of ethology, wTote a celebrated book on aggression.

NOTES

Ruth kliigcr, in her weiter leben: Eine Jugend (Gottingen, Germany: Wall-stein, 1992, p. 186), in discussing programmed and flexible learning behavior, makes this acid observation: "On the other hand, one cannot predict the behavior of the behavioral researcher: he was a Nazi and became a great professor at that time, and then he once again became a sensible contempo-Vivy with justitiable political views. Naturally evil remained for him always only the 'so-called evil,' and the temptation to evil, which lies in human freedom, he chose not to acknowledge. He confused it stubbornly with the preprogrammed animal aggression, which he had so thoroughly researched." 134 ". . . relations may not be hierarchical." See, for example, Ryden's God's Dog, p. 223, where she complains ". . . my animals got along so well that I was unable to determine their relative ranks."

134 "Anger and other emotions related . . ." What animal aggression says about human aggression is debated. Richard Lewontin writes that "there is in fact not a shred of evidence that the anatomical, physiological, and genetic basis of what is called aggression in rats has anything in common with the German invasion of Poland in 1939." (Biology as Ideology: The Doctrine of DNA. New York: HarperCollins, 1991, p. 96.) On the other hand, the Renaissance historian Richard Trexler said that "without animal behavior studies, I would understand much less about human aggression in Italy in the fourteenth century." [Personal communication.]

135 "'Animals fight . . .'" Aiissichten auf den BUrgerkrieg. Frankfurt am M., 1993.

135 ". . . Kasakela apes . . ."]nneGoodz\\, The Chimpanzees of Gombe; Patterns of Behavior (Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press, 1986), p. 502.

136 "Bands of dwarf mongooses . . ." Rasa, Mofjgoose Watch, pp. 230-31.

136 Kruuk, Spotted Hyena, pp. 254-56.

137 "Parrots have been known . . ." Mattie Sue Athan, Guide to a Well-Behaved Parrot, p. 138.

138 ". . . dominance relationships . . . dominance raiiks ..." Irwin S. Bernstein, "Dominance: the Baby and the Bathwater," Behavioral and Brain Sciences 4 (1981), pp. 419-29. (Followed by peer commentary.)

138 ". . . a female and her adolescent daughter." Thelma Rowell has suggested that rank relationships may be better characterized as subordinance rather than dominance relationships, since it is the giving way by one animal that constitutes a decision not to fight. In her view a dominance rank does not express the social character of a baboon, but is what is "left over" after his degree of subordination is accounted for. (Rowell, Social Behaviour of Monkeys, pp. 162-63) Consider ring-tailed lemurs, a species in which females dominate males. Males seem to have a clear dominance order among themselves, and females a less apparent one. Researcher Alison Jolly noted, "Females . . . were far less 'status-conscious.' They might gratuitously chase each other or the males and would cuff any animal which came too close. However, not only did they spit less frequently, but they did not carry themselves in a particularly erect or cringing posture, nor did they keep an eye on dominant troop members and dodge their approach. The general dominance

NOTES

of females over males seems to rise out of the same attitudes: an insouciant female would cuff any animal, but a male was subordinate to any animal it could not bully." (Lemur Behavior: A Madagascar Field Study. Alison Jolly. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), pp. 104—07.) Also Alison F. Richard, "Malagasy Prosimians: Female Dominance," in Primate Societies, eds. Barbara B. Smuts et al., pp. 25-33 (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1986).

139 "In the hamadryas baboon . . ." Christian Bachmann and Hans Kummer, "Male Assessment of Female Choice in Hamadryas Baboons," Behavioral Ecology and Sociohiology 6 (1980), pp. 315-21. This paper continues a tradition of referring to male hamadryas baboons as "owners" of females.

139 Stxum, Almost Human, pp. 118-20.

139 Leyhausen, Cat Behavior, pp. 256-57.

139 "This may be why . . ." Lemurs are by no means the only species that exhibit female dominance. The recently rediscovered mountain pygmy-pos-simi (Burramys parvus) is a mouse-sized marsupial, previously known only from fossils. Living high in the Australian Alps, they must survive fierce winters. They are thought to show an unusual form of female dominance. The females occupy good foraging habitat year-round and in the winter hibernate in nests with their daughters. The males, who mate with many females and who do not take care of the young, move into these areas in the summer. In the winter, apparently ousted by the females, they move to poorer habitats where they hibernate alone or with other males. Fewer males survive the winter, so although equal numbers of male and female pygmy-possums are born, adult males are much less common than females. (The Mountain Pygmy-possum of the Australian Alps. Ian Mansergh and Linda Broome. Kensington, NSW, Australia: New South Wales University Press, 1994.)

139 "Scientists'behavior may . . ." President Theodore Roosevelt, "an enthusiastic imperialist and a staunch believer in the superiority of the Anglo-Saxon race, was also a renowned Great WTiite Hunter who devoted much of his life to killing large animals throughout the world and writing books recounting his adventures." The early Canadian conservationists John Muir (founder of the Sierra Club) and William J. Long engaged the president in a much followed debate in the popular press. When Roosevelt contended that they lacked manliness and did not know "the heart of the wild thing," Long snapped back with a famous counterattack:

Who is he to write, "I don't believe for a minute that some of these nature writers know the heart of a wild thing." As to that, I find after carefiilly reading two of his big books that every time Mr. Roosevelt gets near the heart of a wild thing he invariably puts a bullet through it.

This quote and the earlier one about Roosevelt come from Matt Cartmill's A View to a Death in the Morning, pp. 153-54.

140 ". . . sciinitar-horncd oryx . . ." Clark, High Hills mid Wild Goats, pp. 67-68.

140 ". . . rape . . . in coatimundis . . ." Bil Ciiibert, C/'w/o (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1973), pp. 230-31.

141 ". . . white-fronted bee-eaters . . ." S. T. Emlen and P. H. Wrege, "Forced Copulations and Intraspecific Parasitism: Two Costs of Social Living in the WTiite-fronted Bee-eater," Ethology 71 (1986), pp. 2-29.

141 ". . . males try to pile on." Robert O. Bailey, Norman R. Seymour, and Gary R. Stewart, "Rape Behavior in Blue-winged Teal," Auk 95 (1978), pp. 188-90. Also, David P. Barash, "Sociobiology of Rape in Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos): Responses of the Mated Male," Science 197 (August 19, 1977), pp." 788-89.

141 ". . . rape the newcomer . . ." Pryor, Lads Before the Wind, pp. 78-79.

141 ". . . in the wild . . . dolphins . . ." Natalie Angier, "Dolphin Courtship: Brutal, Cunning and Complex," New York Times, February 18, 1992.

141 Kruuk, Spotted Hyena, p. 232.

142 ". . . penguins may push one of their . . .'^ }ohn Mcock, Animal Behavior: An Evolutionary Approach, 4th ed. (Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, 1989), pp. 372-73.

142 ". . . giraffe got off the road . . ." Dagg and Foster, Giraffe, pp. 36-37. 142 ". . . both appear irritated . . ." Pryor, Lads Before the Wind, p. 123.

142 "... a young false killer whale . . ." Ibid., p. 214.

143 ". . . colleagues of Pavlov tried to . . ." Quoted in Thomas M. French, The Integration of Behavior, Volume I: Basic Postulates (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1952), pp. 156-57.

144 ". . . 'literally eaten alive . . .' " "What Everyone Who Enjoys Wildlife Should Know," pamphlet from Abundant Wildlife Society of North America, Gillette, Wyoming. Also Abundant Wildlife, Special Wolf Issue, 1992.

144 "The whistling dog . . ." Michael W. Fox, The Whistling Hunters: Field Studies of the Asiatic Wild Dog (Cuon Alpinus) (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1984), p. 63.

145 "A leopard . . . play with captured jackals . . ." Moss, Portraits in the Wild, p. 296.

145 Leyhausen, Cat Behavior, pp. 128-30.

145 ". . . tiger catches prey . . ." Ibid., pp. 136-37.

145 ". . . lioness has been seen . . ." Thomas, "Reflections: The Old Way," p. 93.

146 ". . . cats . . . play with paper balls . . ." Leyhausen, Cat Behavior, p. 137.

147 "Bears, confronted by a river full . . ." Bledsoe, Brown Bear Summer, p. 67. 147 "Hyenas invade a flock . . ." Kruuk, Spotted Hyena, p. 89.

147 "Such surplus killers . . ." See, for example, Troy R. Mader, "Wolves and Hunting," Abundant Wildlife, Special Wolf Issue (1992), p. 3. Accounts of wolves surplus-killing deer in iMimiesota, caribou calves in Canada, and Dall sheep in Alaska are used to argue that wolf numbers must be limited. Also photo caption, p. 1.

258

NOTES

147 "Both wild and captive hyenas . . ." Kruuk, Spotted Hyena, p. 119. Also

Stephen E. Glicionan, pers. comm., November 5, 1992. 147 ". . . eat some of the surplus." Ibid., pp. 165, 204.

147 "They may not estimate closely . . ." Gerard Gormley, Orcas of the Gulf; a Natural History (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1990), p. 85.

148 Schaller, Serengeti Lion, p. 383. He adds that lions tend to treat humans as fellow predators rather than as prey.

149 "Congo, a chimpanzee . . ." Desmond Morris, Animal Days (New York: Perigord PressAViUiam Morrow & Co., 1980), pp. 222-23.

149 Leyhausen, Cat Behavior, pp. 234-35.

150 William Jordan, Divorce Among the Gulls: An Uncommon Look at Human Nature (San Francisco: North Point Press, 1991), p. 30.

150 ". . . Bimbo . . . Tabu . . . Mkuba . . ." Sigvard Berggren, Berggi-en's Beasts, translated from the Swedish by Ian Rodger (New York: Paul S. Eriksson, 1970), p. 76.

150 Terrace, Nim, pp. 51-52.

151 "The student may be thought of as a model . . ." This is an example of observational learning, and animals have frequently been said to be unable to do this. However, observational learning has been experimentally demonstrated in animals as diverse as cats and octopuses.

151 Irene Pepperberg, interview by Susan McCarthy, February 22, 1993. 151 "A tame parrot may suddenly . . ." De Grahl, Grey Parrot, p. 46. 151 Athan, Guide to a Well-Behaved Parrot, p. 11.

151 "When Nepo . . . Kianu . . ." Don C. Reed, Notes from an Underwater Zoo (New York: Dial Press, 1981), pp. 248-51. Kianu was separated from the other orcas, became visibly depressed, and was sold to a Japanese oceanar-ium. Nepo died in 1980. Yaka is still at the original oceanarium.

152 De Waal, Chimpanzee Politics, p. 168.

152 ". . . in the Arnhem Zoo . . ." Ibid., p. 116. Also De Waal, Peacemaking