When Elephants Weep: The Emotional Lives of Animals (39 page)

87 Moss, Elephant Memories, pp. 100-01.

88 "The male she had paired with . . ." Moss, Portraits in the Wild, p. 49.

88 Ryden, God's Dog, pp. 60-62.

89 George Archibald, "Gee Whiz! ICF Hatches a Whooper," The ICF Bugle (July 1982). In a letter to Jeffrey Masson of July 25, 1994, George Archibald

NOTES

adds the following interesting details: "After she laitl her egg in 19H2, the t^^ was replaced with a dummy egg, and I spent the night in my shack beside Tex's nest. My duty was to protect Tex from predators, and we hoped that allowing Tex to incubate the first egg would stimulate her to produce a second egg. .Vbout midnight a downpour of rain accompanied by strong winds descended on the Baraboo Hills. Tex was drenched as she sat on her nest. Every few minutes she emitted low frequency Contact Calls (low purring sound), and I answered. If I called to her, she immediately responded with a Contact Call. WTien the radio announced a tornado warning, I left the shack and with thunder crashing and lightning flashing, I picked up Tex, held her imder my arm, and walked down the hay field to her shed. I talked and she Contact Called all the way there. During this emergency, I felt a strong emotional connection with Tex." 89 Gavin Maxwell, Raven, Seek Thy Brother (London: Penguin Books, 1968), pp. 59-61.

Chapter 5: Grief, Sadness, and the Bones of Elephants

91 Houle, Wings for My Flight, pp. 75-87. The female peregrine had reportedly been shot. The two surviving nestlings fledged successfully.

92 "According to naturalist Georg Steller . . ." Quoted in H. C. Bemhard Grzimek, ed., Gi-zimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia, Vol. 12 (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1975).

93 Thomas, Hidden Life of Dogs.

94 "Ackman and Alle, two circus horses . . ." Henderson, Circus Doctor, p. 78. 94 Pryor, Lads Before the Wind, pp. 116-11.

94 "Researchers who had caught . . ." Antony Alpers, Dolphins: The Myth and the Mammal (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1960), pp. 104-05.

95 "Lions do not form . . ." Thomas, "Reflections: The Old Way," p. 91. 95 Moss, Elepha?Jt Memories, pp. 269-71.

95 ". . . African elephants surrounding a dying matriarch . . ." Moss, Portraits in the Wild, p. 34.

95 Moss, Elephant Memories, pp. 272-73.

96 "Three small groups of chimpanzees . . ." Geza Teleki, "Group Response to the Accidental Death of a Chimpanzee in Gombe National Park, Tanzania," Folia Primatol 20 (1973), pp. 81-94.

97 "A chimpanzee at the Arnhem Zoo . . ." De Waal, Chimpanzee Politics, pp. 67-70.

97 "'if they do not get companionship . . y hzTsWihson, My Beaver Colony, trans, by Joan Bulman (Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Co., 1968), pp. 61-62.

98 ". . . 'bull areas.' " Moss, Elephant Memories, p. 112.

98 Leyhausen, Cat Behavior, pp. 287-88.

99 Goodall, Through a Window: My Thirty Years with the Chimpanzees of Gombe (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1990), p. 230.

100 " 'Hum-Hum had lost all joy . . .' " Cited in Robert M. Yerkes and Ada W.

NOTES

Yerkes, The Qreat Apes: A Study of Anthropoid Life (New Haven, CT: Yale

University Press, 1929), p. 472. 100 "A pilot whale celebrity . . ." Pryor, Lads Before the Wind, pp. 82-83. 100 "Yet at Sea World, in San Diego . . ." Robert Reinhold, "At Sea World,

Stress Tests Whale and Man," New York Times, April 4, 1988, p. A9.

100 ". . . 'just moped to death.' " Pryor, Lads Before the Wind, p. 132.

101 " 'It seems reasonable to allow . . .' " McFarland, ed., Oxford Companion to Animal Behavior, p. 599.

102 ". . . 'placed alone in the "depression chamber" . . .' " Harlow said that his "device was designed on an intuitive basis to reproduce such a well [of despair] both physically and psychologically for monkey subjects." See the trenchant criticism by James Rachels in "Do Animals Have a Right to Liberty?" in Animal Rights and Human Obligations, Tom Regan and Peter Singer, eds. (Englewood CUffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1976), p. 211. See, too, Peter Singer's criticism in Chapter 2 of his Animal Liberation.

102 "Even when months had passed . . ." "Do Animals Have a Right to Liberty?" in Regan and Singer, eds., Animal Rights, p. 211. See, too, the fine criticism of Harlow's work in Chapter 2 of Peter Singer's influential Animal Liberation (New York Review, 1975); the original article by Harlow is written with Stephen J. Suomi: "Depressive Behavior in Young iMonkeys Subjected to Vertical Chamber Confinement," J^owrwa/ of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 80 (1972), pp. 11-18. Harlow pubHshed his articles in prestigious journals. For example, see his "Love in Infant Monkeys," Scientific American 200 (1959), pp. 68-74; and "The Nature of Love," American Psychologist, 13 (1958), pp. 673-85. A usefiil general critique is found in Psychology Experiments on Animals: A Critique of Animal Models of Human Psychopathology by Brandon Kuker-Reines for the New England Anti-Vivisection Society, 1982, who remarks in a telling aside that "the apparent quest to reveal the 'true man' through monkey experimentation is symptomatic of an identity crisis rather than scientific progress" (p. 68).

102 ". . . 'learned helplessness.' " Martin E. P. Sefigman, Helplessness: On Depression, Development, and Death (San Francisco, CA: W. H. Freeman & Co., 1975), pp. 23-25. WTiile restrained, each dog was given sixty-four shocks of 6.0 miUiamperes, lasting for five seconds.

103 ". . . talking to battered women . . ." Lenore Walker has powerfully delineated the role of learned helplessness in the lives of battered women. See her Terrifying Love: Why Battered Women Kill and How Society Responds (New York: Harper & Row, 1989).

103 "One experimenter raised rhesus monkeys in solitude . . ."J. B. Sidowski, "Psychopathological Consequences of Induced Social Helplessness During Infancy," in Experimental Psychopathology: Recent Research and Theory, H. D. Kimmel, ed. (New York: Academic Press, 1971), pp. 231-48.

104 "... a special mourning howl . . ." Russell J. Rutter and Douglas H. Pimlott, The World of the H^/f (Philadelphia and New York: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1968), p. 138; Lois Crisler, Captive Wild (New York: Harper & Row, 1968), p. 210.

NOTFS

104 "When Marchessa . . ." Ian Rciiinoml, "The Death of Digit," International Primate Protection League Newsletter 15, No. 3, December 1988, p. 7.

104 " 'In disappointment the yoimg specimen. . . ." Yerkes and Yerkes, Great Apes, p. 161.

105 "Emotional tears are ihlTerent . . ." \\'illiain Frey, II, 07/;/(/; 7/'t'A/v.m77 o/ Tears, with Muriel Langseth (Minneapolis: Winston Press, 1985). Emotional tears are also called psychogenic tears. It is unclear where tears of pain fit into these categories.

105 ". . . the one body product that may . . ." S. B. (3rtner, "Shera purity," American Anthropologist 75 (1973), pp. 49-63. Quoted in Paul Rozin and April Fallon, "A Perspective on Disgust," Psychological Review 94 (1987), pp. 23^1.

105 ". . . Nim Chimpsky . . ." Terrace, Nim, p. 56.

105 "Tears have been seen . . ." De Grab!, Grey Parrot, p. 189.

105 ". . . especially apt to have tears . . ." Victor B. Scheffer, Seals, Sea Lions, and Walnises: A Review of the Pinnipedia (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1958), p. 22. Also Frey, Crying.

106 Macaciis maiinis, the Celebes macaque, is now denoted Cynomacaca maurus. An influential German book in its time, Karl Friedrich Burdach's Blicke ins Lehen (3 Vols., Leipzig, Germany: Leopold Woss, 1842), Vol. 2, p. 130, cites examples of female seals who "shed copious tears when they were abused," giraffes who cried when they were removed from their companions, and tears in fur seals when their young were stolen (geraubt) and in an elephant seal when it was treated roughly.

106 Frey, Crying, p. 141.

106 "Tears fell from the eyes . . ." Volker Arzt and Immanuel Birmelin, Haben

Tiei'en ein Bewusstsein?: Wenn Ajfen liigen, wenn Katzen denken und Elefanten

traurig si?id {Munich: C. Bertelsmann, 1993), p. 154.

106 R. Gordon Cummings, Five Years of a Himter's Life in the Far Interior of South Africa (1850), quoted in Richard Carrington, Elephants: A Short Account of Their Natural History, Evolution and Influence on Mankind (London: Chatto & Wmdus, 1958), pp. 154-55.

107 George Lewis, as told to Byron Fish, Elephant Tramp (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1955), pp. 52, 188-89.

107 Victor Hugo, Carnet intime 1870-1871, public et presente par Henri Guille-min. (Paris: GaHimard, 7th ed., 1953), p. 88.

108 "shedding tears when scolded ..." Chadwick, Fate of the Elephant, p. 327. 108 "Observing young orphaned ..." Chadwick, Fate of the Elephant, p. 384.

108 "Perhaps the position somehow prevents drainage . . ." This suggestion was proposed by Dr. William Frey.

109 ". . . beavers also weep copiously . . ." L. S. Lavrov, "Evolutionary Development of the Genus Castor and Taxonomy of the Contemporary Beavers of Eurasia," Acta Zool. Fennica 174 (1983), pp. 87-90.

109 Dian Fossey, Gorillas in the Mist (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1983), p.

110. 109 D. M. Frame, trans.. The Complete Works of Montaigne, Vol. 2 (Garden City,

NY: Anchor Books, 1960), pp. 105-09.

NOTES

Chapter 6: A Capacity for Joy

111 "It knar it was free . . ." Kenneth S. Norris, Dolphin Days: The Life afrd Times of the Spinner Dolphin (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1991), pp. 129-30.

111 ". . . 'what obtains after . . .' " Izard, Human Emotions, pp. 239-45.

112 "Lions purr . . ." Schaller, Sere?igeti Lion, pp. 104, 304.

112 "Happy gorillas are said to sing." Reported in Montgomery, Walking with the Great Apes, p. 146.

112 "Howling wolves . . ." Thomas, Hidden Life of Dogs, p. 40.

113 L\Tin Rogers, interview by Susan McCarthy, July 15, 1993.

113 Darwin to Susan Darwin, 1838, The Coirespondence of Charles Darwin Volume 2; 1831-1843 (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1986).

113 Norris, Dolphin Days, pp. 42^3.

114 "When the ice finally melted . . ." Ryden, Lily Pond, p. 104. 114 "Nim Chimpsky . . ." Terrace, Nim, p. 412.

114 ". . . 'gorilla hug.' " Patterson and Linden, The Education of Koko, p. 185. 114 Carolyn A. Ristau and Donald Robbins, "Language in the Great Apes: A

Critical Vieview,'' Advances in the Study of Behavior, Vol. 12, 141-255 (1982),

p. 229.

114 ". . . 'singing in the rain.'" Roger Fonts, interview by Susan McCarthy, December^ 10^, 1993.

115 ". . . some goats have been seen . . ." Chndv,ick, Beast the Color of Winter, pp. 150-51.

115 Jane Goodall and David A. Hamburg, "Chimpanzee Behavior as a Model for the Behavior of Early Man," in Silvano Arieti, ed., American Handbook of Psychiatry, 2nd ed. (New York: Basic Books, 1975), pp. 20-27. Cited here from Carl N. Degler In Search of Human Nature: The Decline and Revival of Darwinism in American Social Thought (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 336.

115 Terrace, Nim, pp. 140-42.

115 "Two male bottle-nosed dolphins . . ." Alpers, Dolphins, p. 102.

116 Moss, Elephant Memories, pp. 124—25.

116 Wilsson, My Beaver Colony, pp. 92-93.

117 "The presence of such traits . . ." Richard Monastersky, "Boom in 'Cute' Baby Dinosaur Discoveries," Science News 134 (October 22, 1988), p. 261.

117 "When a young sparrow . . ." Arzt and Birmelin, Haben Tieren ein Bewusst-sein?, p. 173.

117 Wilsson, p. 131.

118 ". . . beaver's 'subjective feelings . . .' " Ryden, Lily Pond, pp. 185-87. 118 "That a tiger is condemned . . ." On the other hand, Elizabeth Marshall

Thomas is of the opinion that "the best life for a large captive cat is that of a circus performer. A fortunate circus tiger, in my view, might share a cage wth another, compatible tiger, in a collection of ten or twenty fellow tigers whose owners not only train them and perform with them but in all ways share their lives." The Tribe of Tiger: Cats and Their Culture (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994), p. 194.

NOTES

118 Ciebel-W'iiliams with Reinhold, Untamed, p. 310.

119 Karen Pryor and Kenneth S. Norris, eds. Dolphin Societies: Discoveries and Puzzles (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), p. 346.

119 "Horse trainers commonly . . ." Heywood Hale Broun, "Ever Indomitable, Secretariat Thunders Across the Ages," New York Times, May 30, 1993, p. 23.

119 Ralph Dennard, interview by Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson and Susan McCarthy, September 24, 1993.

120 "Washoe may have had . . ." Roger Fouts, interview by Susan McCarthy, December 10, 1993.

121 "It looks as if . . ." De Waal, Chimpanzee Politics, p. 26.

121 ". . . 'exploded with joy' . . ." George B. Schaller, The Last Panda (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1993), p. 66.

121 J. Lee Kavanau, "Behavior of Captive White-footed Mice," Science 155 (March 31, 1967): pp. 1623-39.

122 ". . . 'lamp-pulling and squirting behavior . . .' " P. B. Dews, "Some Observations on an Operant in the Octopus,'' Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 2 (1959): pp. 57-63. Reprinted in Thomas E. McGill, ed.. Readings in Animal Behavior (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Wmston, 1965).

122 F. Eraser Darling, A Herd of Red Deer: A Study in Animal Behavior (London: Oxford University Press, 1937), p. 35.

123 "When Indah . . ." "Orangutan Escapes Exhibit, Mingles with Zoo Visitors," San Francisco Chronicle, June 19, 1993 (Associated Press story).

124 "Play ... has been increasingly studied . . ." See M. Bekoff and J. A. Byers: "A Critical Reanalysis of the Ontogeny and Phylogeny of Mammalian Social and Locomotor Play: An Ethological Hornet's Nest." In K. Im-melmann et al., Behavioral Development: The Bielefeld Interdisciplinary Projea. (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1981), pp. 296-337.

124 Robert Fagen, Animal Play Behavior (New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981), pp. 3^.

124 "Biologists continue to be dismayed . . ." Ibid., pp. 17-18. Fagen notes that whenever he lectured on animal play, "Afterwards, to my discomfort and embarrassment, I would chiefly be asked 'people questions.' "

124 " '. . . this behavior fascinates . . .' " Fagen, p. 494.

124 Robert A. Hinde, Animal Behavior (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966).