The Red Flag: A History of Communism (108 page)

96
. E. Zamiatin,
We
, trans. C. Brown (London, 1993).

97
. For these developments, see M. von Hagen,
Soldiers in the Proletarian Dictatorship: the Red Army and the Soviet Socialist State, 1917–1930
(Ithaca, 1990), ch.1.

98
. Holquist,
Making War
, pp.232–40.

99
. L. Trotsky,
Terrorism and Communism
(Ann Arbor, 1971), p.170.

100
. Von Hagen,
Soldiers
, pp.89–114.

101
. Ibid., p.107.

102
. Sanborn,
Drafting the Russian Nation
, p.178.

103
. O. Figes, ‘Village and Volost Soviet Elections of 1919’,
Soviet Studies
40 (1988), p.43.

104
. Lenin,
PSS
, vol. xlv, p.389.

105
. See, for instance, D. Raleigh,
Experiencing Russia’s Civil War: Politics, Society and Revolutionary Culture in Saratov, 1917–1922
(Princeton, 2002), pp.248–51.

106
. Figes,
People’s Tragedy
, p.649.

107
. O. Figes,
Peasant Russia, Civil War: The Volga Countryside in Revolution, 1917
–
1921
(Oxford, 1989), pp.91 ff.

108
. For this argument, see ibid., p.314.

109
. ‘Belaia armiia, chernyi baron’ (1920), lyrics P. Grigoriev. The ‘black baron’ was Baron Wrangel, the White commander.

110
. Cited in S. Smith,
The Russian Revolution. A Very Short Introduction
(Oxford, 2002), p.95.

111
. Cited in I. Deutscher,
The Prophet Armed. Trotsky 1879
–
1940
(New York, 1965), p.495.

112
. For Bogdanov’s ideas, see Z. Sochor,
Revolution and Culture. The Bogdanov
–
Lenin Controversy
(Ithaca, 1988), pp.28–35.

113
. T. Sapronov,
Deviataia konferentsiia RKP(b)
,
sentiabr’ 1920 goda. Protokoly
(Moscow, 1972), p.161.

114
. Figes,
Peasant Russia
, pp.329–31, 334, 339, 344.

115
. P. Avrich,
Kronstadt, 1921
(Princeton, 1970), ch.5.

116
. I. Getzler,
Kronstadt, 1917
–
1921. The Fate of a Soviet Democracy
(Cambridge, 1983), pp.233–4.

117
. Lenin,
PSS
, vol. xliv, pp.157–8.

118
. E. H. Carr,
The Bolshevik Revolution
,
1917
–
1923
(3 vols.) (London, 1966–71), vol. ii, pp.302–9.

119
. For Lenin’s views of ‘cultural revolution’, see C. Claudin Urondo,
Lenin and the Cultural Revolution
, trans. B. Dean (Brighton, 1977), pp.79–83.

120
. R. Williams,
Artists in Revolution. Portraits of the Russian Avant-Garde, 1905
–
1925
(London, 1978), pp.158–9.

121
. Taylor,
Art and Literature
, p.69.

1
. B. Brecht, ‘Drums in the Night’, in
Collected Plays
, trans. and ed. J. Willett and R. Mannheim (London, 1970), vol. i, pp.63–115.

2
. L. Trotsky,
Moia zhizn’. Opyt avtobiografii
(Berlin, 1930), vol. i, p.285.

3
. Hans Arp,
On My Way. Poetry and Essays, 1912
–
1947
(New York, 1948), p.39.

4
. Grosz’s self-critical account of his conversion to Communism can be found in G. Grosz,
The Autobiography of George Grosz: A Small Yes and a Big No
, trans. Arnold J. Pomerans (London, 1982), pp.91–2.

5
. For these developments, see G. Eley,
Forging Democracy. A History of the Left in Europe, 1850
–
2000
(Oxford, 2002), pp.132–4.

6
. G. Feldman, ‘Socio-Economic Structures in the Industrial Sector and Revolutionary Potentialities, 1917–1922’, in C. Bertrand (ed.),
Revolutionary Situations in Europe, 1917
–
1922: Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary
(Montreal, 1977).

7
. See, for instance, H. Lagrange, ‘Strikes and the War’, in L. Haimson and C. Tilly (eds.),
Strikes, Wars and Revolutions in an International Perspective. Strike Waves in the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries
(Cambridge, 1989); B. Bezza, ‘Social Characteristics, Attitudes and Patterns of the Metalworkers in Italy during the First World War’, in Haimson and Tilly,
Strikes
; E. Tobin, ‘War and the Working Class: The Case of Düsseldorf, 1914–1918’,
Central European History
13 (1985), pp.257–98.

8
. For these figures, see D. Blackbourn,
History of Germany, 1780
–
1918. The Long Nineteenth Century
(Oxford, 1997), p.366.

9
. D. Kirby,
War, Peace and Revolution. International Socialism at the Crossroads 1914
–
1918
(New York, 1986), p.57.

10
. U. Schneede (ed.),
George Grosz: His Life and Work
, trans. Susanne Flatauer (London, 1979), p.160.

11
. See P. von Oertzen,
Betriebsräte in der Novemberrevolution
(Bonn, 1976); E. Kolb,
Die Arbeiterräte in der deutschen Innenpolitik 1918 bis 1919
(Düsseldorf, 1962).

12
. For this argument, see S. Berger,
Social Democracy and the Working Class in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Germany
(Harlow, 2000), p.96.

13
. J. Riddell (ed.),
Workers of the World and Oppressed Peoples, Unite! Proceedings and Documents of the Second Congress, 1920
(New York, 1991) vol. i, p.8.

14
. K. McDermott and J. Agnew,
The Comintern. A History of International Communism from Lenin to Stalin
(Basingstoke, 1996), pp.20–1.

15
. C. Epstein,
The Last Revolutionaries. The German Communists and their Century
(Cambridge, Mass., 2003), pp.20–2.

16
. H. Mann,
Man of Straw
(Harmondsworth, 1984).

17
. Karl Kraus in
Die Fackel
, November 1920, cited in J. Nettl,
Rosa Luxemburg
(London, 1966), vol. i, p. xviii.

18
. For ‘Romantic anti-capitalism’ amongst Marxists and the nationalist right, see Z. Sternhell,
The Birth of Fascist Ideology. From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution
(Princeton, 1994), esp. ch.1 on Georges Sorel. For the influence of Sorel and ‘syndicalism’ on Marxists, see R. Williams,
The Other Bolsheviks
.
Lenin and his Critics, 1904
–
1914
(Bloomington, 1986). For the influence of Nietzsche on Marxism, see B. Rosenthal,
New Myth, New World. From Nietzsche to Stalinism
(University Park, Pa, 2002), pp.68–93.

19
. See M. Kane,
Weimar Germany and the Limits of Political Art: a Study of the Work of George Grosz and Ernst Toller
(Tayport, 1987).

20
. M. Löwy,
Georg Lukács: From Romanticism to Bolshevism
, trans. P. Camiller (London, 1979), p.93. See also A. Arato and P. Breines,
The Young Lukács and the Origins of Western Marxism
(New York, 1979); M. Gluck,
Georg Lukács and his Generation, 1900
–
1918
(Cambridge, Mass., 1985).

21
. Cited in Löwy,
Lukács
, p.123.

22
. According to an autobiographical novel by József Lengyel, quoted in Löwy,
Lukács
, p.152.

23
. B. Kovrig,
Communism in Hungary. From Kun to Kádár
(Stanford, 1979), p.77.

24
. See G. Lukács,
History and Class Consciousness
, trans. R. Livingstone (London, 1971), pp.173, 313.

25
. T. Mann,
The Magic Mountain
, trans. H. Lowe-Porter (Harmondsworth, 1960), p.478.

26
. Cited in J. Cammett,
Antonio Gramsci and the Origins of Italian Communism
(Stanford, 1967), p.7.

27
.
Avanti
, 18 December 1917, cited in A. Gramsci,
Selections from Cultural Writings
, eds. D. Forgacs and G. Nowell-Smith (London, 1985), pp.20–3.

28
. A. Gramsci, ‘Workers’ Democracy’, in
L’Ordine Nuovo
, 21 June 1919, in Gramsci,
Selections from Political Writings, 1910
–1920, trans. J. Mathews, ed. Q. Hoare (London, 1977), pp.65–8.

29
. M. Jay,
The Dialectical Imagination: a History of the Frankfurt School and the Institute of Social Research, 1923
–
1950
(London, 1973).

30
. Nettl,
Rosa Luxemburg
, vol. i, pp.512–13.

31
. Cited in ibid., pp.792–3.

32
. J. Riddell (ed.),
Founding the Communist International: Proceedings and Documents of the First Congress, March 1919
(New York, 1987), pp.19–20.

33
. ‘Manifesto of the Communist International’, in ibid., pp.222–32.

34
. These are broadly the conclusions of Stefano Bartolini, in Bartolini,
The Political Mobilization of the European Left, 1860
–
1980: the Class Cleavage
(Cambridge, 2000), pp.537–45.

35
. Lajos Kassák, cited in R. Tökés,
Béla Kun and the Hungarian Soviet Republic: the Origins and Role of the Communist Party of Hungary in the Revolutions of 1918
–
1919
(New York, 1967).