Taste of War: World War II and the Battle for Food (118 page)

223
Frank,
Downfall
, p. 287.

224
Gibney,
Senso
, pp. 254–5.

14. The Soviet Union – Fighting on Empty

1
Kravchenko,
I Chose Freedom
, p. 413.

2
The figure of 30 million has to be calculated in a frustratingly roundabout way. There are no accurate figures for death tolls. Instead it is based on a projection forward from the 1939 population census figures to 1941 and a projection backwards from the 1959 census to 1946, to estimate pre- and post-war population figures. Then, allowing for what would have been a normal 2.5 per cent annual increase in population, the demographers calculate that 28–30 million people were missing in 1946. Linz, ‘World War II and Soviet economic growth’, p. 18; Wheatcroft and Davies, ‘Population’, pp. 77–80; Barber and Harrison,
The Soviet Home Front
, pp. ix, 40–42; Ellman and Maksudov, ‘Soviet deaths’, pp. 671–8.

3
Nine million of the estimated 28–30 million dead are accounted for by the military. The causes of death for the 19–21 million Soviet civilians were many. In
the German-occupied areas of the Soviet Union at least 1 million Soviet Jews were murdered, other Soviets died in German prisons and concentration camps or as a result of mass shootings of civilians, yet more died while fighting the Germans as partisans or working as forced labour in German industry. Then there were those who starved to death as a result of the Hunger Plan. In the unoccupied areas of the Soviet Union the figure encompasses those who died in Soviet gulags and forced labour camps and those killed by enemy bombing (estimated at 500,000). Wheatcroft and Davies, ‘Population’, p. 79; Overy,
Russia’s War
, p. 89.

4
Wheatcroft and Davies, ‘Population’, p. 79.

5
Bacon,
The Gulag at War
, p. 139.

6
Kravchenko,
I Chose Freedom
, p. 413.

7
Moskoff,
The Bread of Affliction
, p. 37.

8
Miller, ‘Impact and aftermath of World War II’, p. 284.

9
Merridale,
Ivan’s War
, p. 88.

10
Moskoff,
The Bread of Affliction
, pp. 113–15.

11
Harvard Project on the Soviet Social System, Schedule A, Vol. 9, Case 118, pp. 34–5.

12
Ibid., p. 38.

13
Merridale,
Ivan’s War
, p. 3.

14
Moskoff,
The Bread of Affliction
, p. 113.

15
Ibid., p. 127; War Office,
Record of
Ration Scales
, p. 12.

16
Dunn,
The Soviet Economy
, pp. 56–7.

17
Merridale,
Ivan’s War
, p. 120.

18
Harvard Project on the Soviet Social System, Schedule A, Vol. 27, Case 528, p. 11.

19
Merridale,
Ivan’s War
, pp. 147–8.

20
Ibid., p. 120.

21
Dunn,
The Soviet Economy
, p. 201.

22
Ibid., p. 197.

23
Harvard Project on the Soviet Social System, Schedule A, Vol. 9, Case 118, pp. 37–8.

24
Moskoff,
The Bread of Affliction
, p. 127.

25
Braithwaite,
Moscow 1941
, p. 324.

26
Moskoff,
The Bread of Affliction
, pp. 123–4.

27
Bellamy,
Absolute War
, p. 525.

28
Ibid.

29
Beevor,
Stalingrad
, p. 155.

30
Moskoff,
The Bread of Affliction
, p. 125.

31
Beevor,
Stalingrad
, p. 280.

32
Steinhoff et al.,
Voices
, p. 129.

33
Overy,
Why the Allies Won
, p. 82.

34
Beevor,
Stalingrad
, p. 335.

35
Harvard Project on the Soviet Social System, Schedule A, Vol. 30, Case 641, p. 17.

36
Ibid.

37
Ibid.

38
Merridale,
Ivan’s War
, p. 205.

39
Moskoff,
The Bread of Affliction
, p. 131.

40
Simmons and Perlina,
Writing
the Siege of Leningrad
, p. 198.

41
Ibid.

42
Fitzpatrick,
Everyday Stalinism
, p. 40.

43
Helmut Geidel, interviewed January 2007.

44
Merridale,
Ivan’s War
, p. 98.

45
Bartov,
Hitler’s Army
, pp. 7, 26.

46
Steinhoff et al.,
Voices
, p. 214.

47
Merridale,
Ivan’s War
, p. 5.

48
Harvard Project on the Soviet Social System, Schedule A, Vol. 30, Case 641, p. 35.

49
Trentmann, ‘Coping with shortage’, p. 24.

50
Harvard Project on the Soviet Social System, Schedule A, Vol. 33, Case 454, pp. 24–5.

51
Fitzpatrick,
Everyday Stalinism
, p. 41.

52
Braithwaite,
Moscow 1941
, p. 27.

53
Overy,
Why the Allies Won
, p. 181.

54
Erickson, ‘Soviet women at war’, p. 54; Overy,
Russia’s War
, p. 170.

55
Two million shells were produced against a target of 6 million. Dunn,
The Soviet Economy
, pp. 33, 36.

56
‘Production of shoes dropped from 211 million pairs in 1940 to only 63 million pairs in 1945.’ Dunn,
The Soviet Economy
, p. 31.

57
Barber and Harrison,
The Soviet Home Front
, pp. 78–9, 132–4.

58
Kravchenko,
I Chose Freedom
, p. 388.

59
Sakharov,
Memoirs
, pp. 47–8.

60
Rush, Memoir, NLA MS 8316, pp. 177–8.

61
Ibid., pp. 178–9.

62
Braithwaite,
Moscow 1941
, p. 339.

63
Kravchenko,
I Chose Freedom
, p. 388.

64
Barber and Harrison,
The Soviet Home Front
, pp. 204–5.

65
Harrison,
Accounting for War
, p. 170.

66
Barber and Harrison,
The Soviet Home Front
, p. 144.

67
Moskoff,
The Bread of Affliction
, p. 2.

68
Ibid., p. 138.

69
Harvard Project on the Soviet Social System, Schedule A, Vol. 15, Case 305, p. 75.

70
Harrison, ‘The Second World War’, p. 266.

71
Barber and Harrison,
The Soviet Home Front
, p. 81.

72
Moskoff,
The Bread of Affliction
, p. 149.

73
Ibid.

74
Erickson, ‘Soviet women at war’, p. 53.

75
Keyssar and Pozner,
Remembering War
, p. 92.

76
Bidlack, ‘Survival strategies in Leningrad’, p. 93.

77
Barber and Harrison,
The Soviet Home Front
, p. 173.

78
Sakharov,
Memoirs
, pp. 52–3.

79
Ibid., p. 53.

80
Ibid.

81
Moskoff,
The Bread of Affliction
, p. 142.

82
Tuyll,
Feeding the Bear
, p. 138.

83
Harrison, ‘The Second World War’, pp. 262–3.

84
Overy,
Russia’s War
, p. 226.

85
Moskoff,
The Bread of Affliction
, pp. 227–8.

86
Tolley,
Caviar and Commissars
, p. 115.

87
Ibid.

88
Tuyll,
Feeding the Bear
, p. 65.

89
The maximum number of German divisions fighting in Italy never reached thirty. Ron Klages and John Mulholland, ‘Number of German divisions by front in World War II’,
Axis History Factbook
,
http://www.axishistory.com/index.php?id=7288
.

90
Barber and Harrison,
The Soviet Home Front
, pp. 159–60.

91
Overy,
Russia’s War
, p. 329.

92
Barber and Harrison,
The Soviet Home Front
, pp. 159–60, 186, 204–5.

93
Bacon,
The Gulag at War
, p. 137.

94
Barber and Harrison,
The Soviet Home Front
, pp. 164–5.

95
Harvard Project on the Soviet Social System, Schedule A, Vol. 27, Case 524, pp. 13–15.

96
Kravchenko,
I Chose Freedom
, p. 413.

97
Ibid., p. 389.

98
Ibid., p. 401.

99
Ibid., p. 413.

100
Ibid., p. 414.

101
Ibid., p. 394.

102
Ibid., p. 397. Barber and Harrison,
The Soviet Home Front
, p. 111.

103
Fenby,
Alliance
, p. 21.

104
Fitzpatrick,
Everyday Stalinism
, pp. 54–6.

105
Kravchenko,
I Chose Freedom
, p. 412.

106
Barber and Harrison,
The Soviet Home Front
, pp. 83–4.

107
Erickson, ‘Soviet women at war’, p. 57.

108
Moskoff,
The Bread of Affliction
, p. 145.

109
Ibid., p. 222.

110
Sakharov,
Memoirs
, p. 53.

111
Bidlack, ‘Survival strategies in Leningrad’, p. 96.

112
Keyssar and Pozner,
Remembering War
, p. 94.

113
Davies et al.,
The Economic Transformation
, p. 263.

114
Goldberg, ‘Intake and energy requirements’, p. 2095.

115
Bidlack, ‘Survival strategies in Leningrad’, pp. 92, 95; Macintyre, ‘Famine and the female mortality advantage’, p. 250.

116
Moskoff,
The Bread of Affliction
, p. 37.

117
Overy,
Why the Allies Won
, p. 183.

118
Merridale,
Ivan’s War
, pp. 138–9; Overy,
Russia’s War
, pp. 188–92.

119
Overy,
Russia’s War
, p. 191.

120
Ibid., pp. 171, 212.

121
Sajer,
The
Forgotten Soldier
, p. 302.

122
Overy,
Russia’s War
, pp. 193–4.

123
Ibid., p. 210.

124
Harrison, ‘The Second World War’, p. 244.

125
Overy,
Why the Allies Won
, p. 183.

126
Moskoff,
The Bread of Affliction
, p. 224.

127
Wettlin,
Russian Road
, p. 97.

128
Moskoff,
The Bread of Affliction
., pp. 108–9.

129
Rush, Memoir, NLA MS 8316, p. 217.

130
Ibid., p. 218.

131
Moskoff,
The Bread of Affliction
, p. 224.

132
Wettlin,
Russian Road
, p. 87.

133
Merridale,
Ivan’s War
, p. 182; Ensminger et al.,
Foods and Nutrition Encyclo-pedia
, II, p. 2332.

134
Adamovich and Granin,
A Book of the Blockade
, pp. 53–4.

135
Barber and Harrison,
The Soviet Home Front
, pp. 83–4.

136
2 September 1944, Alexander Papers, NLA, MS2389.

137
Nove, ‘Soviet peasantry in World War II’, p. 85.

138
Fitzpatrick,
Everyday Stalinism
, p. 57; 16 August 1944, Alexander Papers, NLA, MS2389.

139
Barber and Harrison,
The Soviet Home Front
, p. 111.