Planet of the Bugs: Evolution and the Rise of Insects (43 page)

leafhoppers,
102
,
157

legs: abdominal,
61
,
158
; chelate,
161
; as fly swatters,
150
; of insects,
60–62
; jointed,
11
,
20
,
27
,
29–30
,
31
,
37
; king crab,
30
; number of,
60–61
; silk-producing,
124
; spiny,
39
,
85
,
122
; thoracic,
59
,
76

lemurs,
120
,
172

Lepidoptera,
11
,
108
,
111
,
157–58
,
159

lice,
11
,
100
,
136
,
151
,
167
,
211n15
; bark,
74–75
,
110–11
,
179
; bird,
13
,
151
,
181
; blood-sucking,
151
; body,
2
,
5
; book,
110
; crab,
2
; head,
1
; mammal,
13
,
181

lichens,
ix
,
124
,
175–76
,
186

life: ages of,
22
; ancient microbial,
24
,
181
; bacterial,
5–6
,
18–19
,
23–24
,
26
,
47
,
64
,
148
,
176
; communities of,
22–23
; extraterrestrial,
187–93
; his
tory of,
91–92
,
187–88
; multicellular,
24
,
181
,
189–90
; photosynthetic,
189–90
; single-celled,
23

lignin,
49–50
,
75
,
102
,
109
,
138

limestone,
23
,
38

liverworts,
48
,
51

lobsters,
20
,
31
,
54

locomotion: animal,
26
,
28
,
37
,
81
,
190
; bipedal,
61
; insect,
59–61
; rapid,
26
,
144
; six-legged,
61
; worm,
30

locusts,
3

long-horned beetles,
x–xiv

lungfish,
37
,
51
,
55–56

lycopods,
82
; tree-like,
95

macroherbivores,
117–18
,
132–33

macropredators,
118
,
133–35

Macrotermes
,
149

maggots,
60
,
144
,
179

magnolias,
xiii
,
156–57

malaria mosquito,
5

Malpighian tubules,
106

mammal lice,
151
,
181

mammals,
xii
,
5
,
18
,
28
,
75
,
118
,
120–21
,
127
,
129
,
154
,
167–68
,
171–73
,
180–81
,
191
; age of,
18
,
172–73
; Arctic,
3
; insectivorous,
120
,
165
; radiation of,
166
,
180–81
; shrew-like,
169
,
172
,
208n3

mandibles,
59
,
67–68
,
99
,
103
,
106
,
108
,
124
,
145
,
161
,
163
,
205n8
,
pl. 9
; double-hinged,
68
,
76
; milling,
67

manna,
103

mantises,
1
,
60
,
92
,
136
,
pl. 3

Mantophasmatodea,
11

marine: communities,
22
,
69
,
95
; worms,
25

marshes,
37
,
51
,
57
,
63
,
71
,
73–74
,
87
,
89
,
98

mass extinction,
xiii
,
15
,
23
,
59
,
91–92
,
97
,
184
; catastrophic,
23
,
91
,
168–69
; cyclical nature of,
212n12
; end-Permian,
xii
,
92
,
94
,
97
,
104
,
117
,
173

maternal care,
43
,
44
,
45

mating,
xii
,
78
,
81
,
104
; displays,
78
,
80
; swarms,
71
,
73

maxillary palpus,
117

mayflies,
xii
,
11
,
70–73
,
72
,
79–81
,
85–87
,
98–99
,
106–7
,
109
,
117
,
121–22
,
147
,
204n2
;
Heptagenia
,
70

meadows,
3
,
94
,
115
,
151
,
169

mealybugs,
163
,
166

Mecoptera,
105–6
,
111
,
122

medicines,
182
,
183

Megaloptera,
122
,
125
,
pl. 9

Meganeuridae,
85
,
86
,
131
,
136

melastome,
viii
,
x

Mesozoic: Early,
111
; era,
xii
,
15
,
94
,
96
,
99
,
103
,
111
,
116
,
118
,
126
,
169
,
173
; forests,
74
,
95
,
115
,
151
; insects,
141
; sawflies,
176
; wasps,
136

metamorphosis,
93
; complex,
14
,
91
,
95
,
104–5
,
111–12
,
181
,
205n6
,
207n8
; gradual,
110–11
; holometabolous,
104
,
113

meteors,
168
,
186
,
189

methane,
215n1

Mexico,
7
,
168
,
pl. 1

Michigan,
52–53
,
70

microbes,
51
,
138
,
184
,
192
; fossil,
189

microbial soils,
47–48
,
50
,
54
,
57–58
,
63
,
192

microorganisms: gut,
75
,
90
,
147–48
; symbiotic,
75
,
90
,
147–48

migratory locusts,
3

Milky Way,
186–88

millipedes,
11
,
20
,
30
,
31
,
41
,
45–47
,
47
,
50–51
,
56
,
58
,
61–62
,
76
,
175
,
192
,
203nn1–2
(ch. 3),
205n5

mimicry,
151

minerals,
23–24

Miocene epoch,
172

Mississippian subperiod,
80

mites,
11
,
82
,
205n5

molecules: food,
102
; indigestible,
102
; organic,
90
,
190
; self-replicating,
191

mollusks,
26–27
,
39

molting process,
34–35
,
60
,
62
,
67
,
72
,
80
,
93
,
143–45
; bristletail,
67–68
; griffenfly,
87
; mayfly,
72

moon,
25
,
36
,
40

morphological species concept,
6–8

morphospecies,
7
,
9

mosses,
ix
,
48
,
51
,
56
,
62
,
64–67
,
69
,
73
,
174–75
,
186

moths: Atlas,
131
,
158
;
Automeris
,
pl. 12
; first,
108
; great owlet,
131
; hawk,
86
; hyperdiversity of,
xiv
,
11
,
174
; mandibulate,
108
; noctuid,
10
; pollinating,
156–57
; primitive,
108
,
129
; saturniid,
192
,
pl. 11–12
; underwing,
1

mouthparts: asymmetrical,
103
; chelicerate,
43
; chewing,
99
,
106
,
110
,
122
,
158
; extendable,
93
; fluid-feeding,
113
; mandibulate,
59
,
66–67
; piercing,
82
,
102
,
106
,
121
,
126
,
pl. 6
; scorpionfly,
105
; siphoning,
95
; slender,
206n2
; sucking,
82
,
102–3

muscles,
26
,
28
,
77
,
85
,
141
,
190
; direct flight,
81
; dorsoventral flight,
81
; thoracic,
60
,
81
,
105

mutualism,
156

mycorrhizal fungi,
58
,
63

Mydidae,
157

Mymaridae,
12

myriapods,
16
,
35
,
41
,
41–42
,
45–48
,
59
,
62

mythology: Greek,
127
; human-centrist,
18
,
32

naiads,
71
,
204n2

Napo townsendi
,
178

natural gas,
73

natural selection,
24
,
62
,
84
,
123
,
165
,
181

nematodes,
64

Nemestrinidae,
157

Neoptera,
88–89
,
110
,
114

nervous system,
60

nests: ant,
163
; bee,
74
,
162
; bird,
74
,
151
; complex,
164
; paper,
162
; termite,
147–48
; wasp,
160–63
,
167

nets,
107
,
177
,
193
,
195–96

Neuroptera,
106
,
108
,
111
,
122
,
176

new species,
8
,
130
,
176–80
,
184

niches,
141
; defined,
7
; ecological,
7
,
54
,
63
,
111
,
135–36
; empty,
23
,
180–81
; feeding,
137
; freshwater,
204n2
; marine,
59
; soil,
63
; small,
12–13
,
136
,
183
,
190
; terrestrial,
59

nitrogenous wastes,
84
,
106

Noctuidae,
10

nocturnal behavior,
42
,
89
,
123–24
,
150

notochord,
18

nutrient: flow,
25
,
64
; recyclers,
2
,
64
,
89
,
110
,
129
,
149
,
192

nutrients,
109
,
120
,
164

Nymphalidae,
159
,
pl. 1
,
pl. 8

nymphs,
104
; air dragon,
87
,
94
; aquatic,
71
,
73
,
98
; dragonfly,
87
; freshwater,
71
,
73
,
87
; griffenfly,
87
; homopteran,
161
; katydid,
pl. 2
; mantis,
pl. 3
; mayfly,
71
,
87
; paleodictyopteran,
82
,
85
,
98
,
100
,
205n11
; spittlebug,
pl. 7
; terrestrial,
80
,
98
; zygentoman,
77