Planet of the Bugs: Evolution and the Rise of Insects (40 page)

Carabidae,
10

carbon,
23
,
188

carbon dioxide,
23–24
,
49
,
75
,
79
,
85
,
96–97

Carboniferous: atmosphere,
79
; beetles,
205n6
; climate,
78
; coal-forming swamps,
17
,
73–75
,
79
; Early,
75
; Gnetales,
156
; horsetails,
75
,
95
; Late,
75
,
80–82
,
87
,
89–90
; mayflies,
73
; Pennsylvanian subperiod of,
71
,
76
; period,
xi–xii
,
15
,
60
,
69
,
71–91
,
93
,
96
,
99
,
146
,
173
,
175–76
,
181
,
204n2
; plant species,
73–74
,
95
,
205n13
; seed ferns,
73
,
95

cascade effect,
183

castes,
147
,
148
,
163–64
; defined,
147
; reproductive,
147
; soldier,
147
,
163
; worker,
147
,
163

caterpillars,
61
,
105
,
120
,
144
,
148
,
157–58
,
161–63
,
176
,
179
,
181
,
184
; hemileucine,
pl. 11
; inchworm,
1

caves,
3
,
46
,
89
,
168

cells: bee,
162
; eukaryotic,
24
; giant,
143
; overwintering,
116

cellulose,
49–50
,
75
,
102
,
109
,
138
,
147

Cenozoic: dinosaurs,
174
; era,
xiv
,
15
,
170–86
; forests,
74

centipedes,
11
,
20
,
30
,
45–46
,
50
,
56
,
62
,
84
,
90
,
173
,
175
,
206n16

cephalopods,
33–34
,
41
,
54

Cerambycidae,
viii

cerci,
66
,
76

Cercopidae,
pl. 7

chaos,
2
,
168

charcoal,
63

chelicerae,
43

chemical: communication,
164
; defenses,
84
,
102
,
121
,
158–60
,
206n15
,
pl. 7–8
; detection,
59
; pheromones,
78
,
164

chert,
63
,
68

child labor,
164

chimpanzees,
172

chironomid midges,
4

chlorophyll,
174
,
192
,
215n1

chordates,
27

Chrysomelidae,
pl. 10

cicadas,
ix
,
102
,
120–21
; periodical,
1

circulation,
26
,
49
,
60
,
141

clams,
39

classification,
10–11

climate: arid terrestrial,
113
; change,
97
,
103
,
112–13
,
168
,
185
,
190
; cool,
176
; dry,
96
; east African,
172

cloud forest,
66
,
171
,
173–77
,
pl. 10

coal,
15
,
17
,
73–76
,
205n7
; swamps,
79
,
84
,
90
,
176

cockroaches,
1
,
11
,
61
,
89–90
,
99–100
,
114
,
118
,
122
,
147
; age of,
89
; Carboniferous,
75
,
84
,
206n17
; ovipositor-bearing,
89
,
206n17
; social,
147
; subterranean,
3
,
89
; wood,
75
,
90
; wood-eating,
75
,
90
,
110
,
147

cocoons,
106

coevolution,
2
,
156–57
,
159–60
,
165–66
,
192

cohesion,
204n2
(ch. 4)

cold-bloodedness,
14
,
77–78

Coleoptera,
11
,
109
,
111
,
122
,
205n6
,
pl. 10

Collembola,
4
,
63–65
,
64
,
66

colonization: insect,
112
; of land,
37–38
,
40
,
152
,
173
,
190–91
; of plants,
113
,
157
; of ponds,
87
; of streams,
106–9
,
112

coloration,
82–84
; aposematic,
14
,
121
,
151
,
pl. 8
; cryptic,
84
,
121–22
,
pl. 2–4
;
disruptive,
78
,
pl. 1
; warning,
14
,
78
,
84
,
121
,
pl. 7–8

comets,
23
,
99
,
168

communities: aquatic insect,
107
; arthropod,
56
; big animal,
154
; dinosaur,
166
; first forest,
xi
,
57–58
,
63
; first terrestrial,
36–51
,
181
; flower-associated insect,
155
; insect,
51
; land,
95
; land-based,
37
; land plant,
xi
,
56–57
,
69
; of life,
22–23
,
37
,
95
; marine reef,
69
; mixing of,
112
; near-shore terrestrial,
97
,
112
; ocean,
69
,
95
; shallow marine,
22
,
25
; tree-like plant,
69
; wetland,
112
; wood-consuming,
75

competition,
99
,
104
,
112
,
144
; for marine niches,
59
; for sunlight,
78
,
174

complexity,
154
,
173
,
181
,
185
,
189
; ecological,
95

complex metamorphosis,
91
,
95
,
111–12
,
181
,
205n6
,
207n8

conifers,
73
,
82
,
90
,
95
,
117
,
120
,
127
,
129
,
134
,
156
,
204n4
(ch. 5); redwood-like,
151

constellations,
171
,
192

continental drift,
23–25
,
96
,
108
,
111–13
,
154–55
,
168
,
190
,
208n15

Cooksonia
,
48
,
57

cooperative brood care,
147
,
163

coprolites,
82
,
120
,
205nn13–14

coral reefs,
38–40
,
43
,
53–54
,
111

corals,
26
; Devonian,
53–54
,
56
; first,
26
; Petoskey,
53
,
95
; rugose,
38
; Silurian,
38–39
; tabulate,
38
,
54

cordaites plants,
73
,
82
,
204n4
(ch. 5)

Corydalidae,
pl. 9

Costa Rica,
viii
,
ix

coumarins,
159

courtship,
xii
,
14
,
44
,
78
,
80
,
104
,
125

crabs,
28
,
30
,
192

Cretaceous: continents,
155
; Early,
xiii
,
15
,
140
,
154–56
,
161
; extinctions,
101
,
182
; forests,
155
; India,
155
; Late,
xiii
,
133
,
157
,
168
,
172
; Middle,
157
; period,
xii
,
116
,
152–69
; plant communities,
166
; plant toxins,
166
; South America,
155

crickets,
ix
,
3
,
11
,
61
,
95
,
99–100
,
118
,
122

crinoids,
95

crochets,
158

crustaceans,
31
,
34–35
,
54

crypsis,
14
,
101
,
121–23
,
123
,
151
,
pl. 2–4
,
pl. 12

cryptic species,
8–9

cryptobiosis,
4

Cryptocercidae,
147

Curculionidae,
10

cuticles,
20
,
26
,
46
,
49
,
63
,
79
,
143
,
145
,
158

cyanobacteria,
26
,
49

cyanogenic glycosides,
159

cycads,
95
,
117
,
120
,
124
,
129
,
134
,
156

damselflies,
98
,
107
,
117
,
122
,
176

Darwin, Charles,
165

debris: impact,
113
,
169
; organic,
67
,
74
,
107–8
; volcanic,
117
; woody,
175

decomposition,
74–75
,
89–90
,
108
,
110
,
140
,
149
,
205n5
,
205n7

defenses: chemical,
84
,
121
,
pl. 8
,
pl. 11
; secondary,
121

defensive behavior,
39
,
147
,
179

dehydration,
4
,
65

Dermaptera,
124

deserts,
3
,
42
,
65
,
151

desiccation,
4
,
65
,
116
,
140
,
158

detritivores,
2
,
90

development: delayed,
180
; metamorphic,
93
; slow,
100
; wasp,
146
; wing,
104

Devonian: coral reef ecosystems,
54
,
69
; Early,
xi
,
15
,
48
,
57
,
175
; fish diversity,
54
; Gilboa forest,
57
,
67
; Late,
58
,
67
,
69
,
75
,
80
; lungfish,
52
; myriapods,
62
; period,
17
,
37
,
42
,
50–69
,
96
,
146
,
175
,
181
; scorpions,
56
,
62
,
173
; soils,
59
,
64
,
69
; springtails,
63

digestive system,
26
,
60
,
102
,
105
,
143
,
145

Dimetrodon
,
93–94

dinosaurs,
xiv
,
18
,
94
,
96–97
,
99
,
116–17
,
132–35
,
154
,
165–69
,
172–73
,
180
,
191
,
212n10
; age of,
18
; bird-sized,
118
; carnivorous,
119–20
,
133–35
,
154
; duck-billed,
154–55
,
167
,
169
; feathered,
15
,
116
,
122
,
129
,
149–51
,
167
,
174
,
176
; first,
115
,
118–20
; flying,
81
,
149–51
; herds of,
134–35
,
154
; insectivorous,
120–22
; Jurassic,
xiii
,
132–35
,
149–51
; long-necked,
120
,
132–33
; nest-marauding,
167
; plant-feeding,
120–21
,
166–67
; tree-dwelling,
119
,
149–50
; Triassic,
118–27
,
129
,
150
; warm-blooded,
111
,
133