Good Calories, Bad Calories (90 page)

“The literature on behavior…”: Bruch and Touraine 1940:204. “Life situations”: Bruch 1940:770.

“critical re-evaluation…”: Bruch 1957:19. “The efficacy of any treatment…”: Bruch 1940:775. “When I began to work…”: Bruch 1957:150–51.

“adequately established…”: Bruch 1957:11–12.

“primary metabolic…” and “Studies of human obesity…”: Bruch 1973:32.

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN:

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Epigraph. “The complicated mechanism…”: Rubner 1982:8.

Jean Mayer observed: See Mayer 1954:41–43. See also Mayer 1968.

“The fact remains…”: Brody 1999b.

“Let me state…”: Anon. 1955a:111.

“a plethora of calories”: MacBryde 1951:657.

“primary metabolic…”: Bruch 1973:32.

“separate recognized facts…”: Rony 1940:6.

Compared with growing children: Ibid.:47–49.

Reverse causation, pregnancy, and weight in animals: Wade and Schneider 1992.

“The statement that primary increase…”: Rony 1940:58–59.

Studies of the pre-obese: Ravussin et al. 1988; Roberts et al. 1988. See also Ravussin and Swinburn 1992.

“We cannot get away…”: Yudkin 1959.

“for most adults…”: USDHHS and USDA 2005:14. “There is only one trouble…”: Bruch 1957:25–26.

If we consume an average: Mil er and Mumford 1966. “It is conceivable…”: Du Bois 1936:237.

“no stranger phenomenon…”: Ibid.:252.

Gordon Kennedy discussed: Kennedy 1961.

“multiple metabolic control mechanisms”: Cahil and Renold 1965.

Intake and expenditure as dependent variables: See, for instance, Lusk 1928: 170–74; Grafe 1933:136–46; Du Bois 1936:231–69; Kleiber 1961:266

–90.

“Changes in…hormones…”: Shetty 1999. “dieting is difficult…”: Frayn 1996:245.

“usual symptoms…”: Keys, Brozek et al. 1950:884.

“spontaneous impulses…”: Rony 1940:48.

“clue to the puzzle” and “react exactly like…”: Anon. 1955a:124. Child’s growth stunted: See, for instance, Ashworth et al. 1968.

Luxuskonsumption: See Du Bois 1936:262–69 and Grafe 1933:139–46 for pre–World War I reviews. Term first used by Neumann: Neumann 1902. A modern review of Neumann’s work can be found in Bennett and Gurin 1982:79–82.

“Food in excess…” and “wel within the capacity…”: Lyon and Dunlop 1932.

“The idea that people…”: Garrow 1981:53. Pigs fed low-protein diet: Mil er and Payne 1962. Survival advantage: See Sims 1976. Footnote. Baxter 1976.

“thermochemical tangle…”: Rubner 1982:329. For a modern discussion of diet-induced thermogenesis, see Schutz and Jéquier 1998. Rationale for high-protein diets: See, for instance, Jol iffe 1952:48.

As the external environment changes: Rubner 1982:36,329.

Rubner argued: See Krebs 1960. Voit believed: see Du Bois 1936:236 (“impulse to…”).302 Thrifty and spendthrift metabolisms: Pennington 1953b is perhaps the best post–World War I discussion of this concept.

“total self-regulatory functions…”: Richter 1976:222.

“When wel nourished…” and “a gradual lowering…”: Du Bois 1936:254–55.

“The appetite mechanism…” and “pathological changes…”: Rony 1940:203.

“Whatever may be the mechanisms…”: Lepkovsky 1948:113.

CHAPTER EIGHTEEN:

FATTENING DIETS

Epigraph. “Oversupply of food…”: French 1907:14.

Speke’s travels: Speke 1969 (“such an extent…” “…no mistake…,” 172; “another one…,” 189–90).

John Garrow attempted: Garrow 1978:70. “whenever the prospect…” “I learned that…”: Interview, John Garrow.

Fattening with milk: Speke 1969:172, 189–90. Fattening sessions of the Massa: Garine and Koppert 1991. Ritual fattening ceremonies have been documented among primitive populations throughout Africa and the South Pacific, but it’s rare that the reports actual y document what was eaten. The Massa and sumo were the only two examples I found in which the composition of whose diet is reported in any detail.

Nishizawa on the sumo: Nishizawa et al. 1976. Footnote: Ibid.

Low-fat diets recommended for weight loss: See, for instance, IOM 1995:109–11; NRC 1989: 671. Evidence linking dietary fat consumption to obesity: NRC 1989:567. Footnote. Ibid.

“I could feed them…”: Interview, George Bray.

Fattening rats on fat and carbohydrates: Sclafani 1980. Fattening monkeys: Interview, Barbara Hansen.

Sclafani demonstrated: Sclafani 1980; interview, Anthony Sclafani.

Fattening with Crisco: Interview, Anthony Sclafani.

Seminal experiments by Adolph: Adolph 1947.

Thermodynamic evidence: See von Noorden 1907b:62–64. Flatt’s calculations: Flatt 1978. Sims and Danforth explained: Sims and Danforth 1987.

Sims’s overfeeding studies: Horton et al. 1974 (“obvious question,” 233). See also Sims et al. 1968; Sims et al. 1973; Goldman et al. 1976; Sims 1976.

Sims and Danforth believed: See Sims and Danforth 1974. “Simply stated…” and “In view of these…”: Danforth 1985:1137. See also Sims and Danforth 1987.

“plates of pork chops…”: Interview, Edward Horton. “The bottom line…”: Interview, El iot Danforth.

“difficult assignment…”: Sims and Danforth 1974. “hunger late in the day…”: Goldman et al. 1976:176.

“marked anorexia”: Goldman et al. 1976:166.

CHAPTER NINETEEN:

REDUCING DIETS

Epigraph. “Concentrated carbohydrates…”: Reader et al. 1952.

“fad diet”: AHA 2005: front jacket flap. “In the instruction…”: Newburgh 1942:1087.

Stanford diet: Cutting 1943. Harvard diet: Wil iams et al. 1948. Chicago diet: Steiner 1950 (“general rules”). Cornel diet: Reader et al. 1952.

Keeping the body in nitrogen equilibrium: See, for instance, Preble 1915.

“the inclusion of…”: Campbel 1936. “Al forms of bread…”: Gardiner-Hil 1925.

Lean meat meant any meat: See, for instance, Steiner 1950.

Evans’s weight-maintenance diet: Evans 1947:582.

Evans’s very low-calorie diet: Strang et al. 1930 (“composed of…”). “The secret of the success…”: Wilder 1933. “No concession…”: Evans 1953.

“The next question to decide…”: Croftan 1906.

Dunlop believed: Dunlop and Murray-Lyon 1931.

Observation echoed: Anderson 1935; Bruch 1944:361–64; Rony 1940:59–62 (“It is easier…,” 62); Wil iams et al. 1948. Common rationale: See, for instance, Evans and Strang 1931; Lyon and Dunlop 1931. Footnote. Sidbury and Schwartz 1975.

Evans restricted carbohydrates almost entirely: Strang et al. 1930. Newburgh concluded: Newburgh 1942:1094–95. Footnote. Strang et al. 1930.

“tendency to retain water…”: Lyon and Dunlop 1932:337. “Changes in body-weight…”: Benedict and Carpenter 1910:110–12.

First meaningful report: Hanssen 1936. Results from University Clinic: Mol er 1931.

“…hungry most of the time…”: Evans 1953:132. “relatively poor…”: Hanssen 1936.

Nutritionists wil insist: See, for instance, Mayer 1974b.

Carbohydrates not the only source of glucose: See, for instance, Harper 1971:249. Ketone-body levels in diabetes, etc.: Van Ital ie and Nufert 2003.

Modified by Harvey and Niemeyer: Harvey 1872. By Oertel: Oertel 1895. By Ebstein: Ebstein 1884 (“the fat of ham…,” 33).

Stefannson and the Inuit: See, for instance, Stefansson 1936; Stefansson 1946; Stefansson 1960b.

“with perhaps 30 percent fish…”: Stefansson 1946:22. “not proper human food”: Stefansson 1960b:33.

Inuit paid little attention: Jenness 1959 (“…added nothing…,” 110; “no fruit…,” 191). See also Freuchen 1961:9–11, 142. “we lived upon…”: Dana 1946:251–52.

Newer Knowledge: McCol um 1922. “A safe rule of thumb…”: Pel et 1987:164.

Deficiency diseases: McCol um 1957 (“water gruel sweetened…,” 252–54; Beriberi in the Japanese navy, 188–89; Voegtlin’s experiment, 303). See also Carpenter 1986; Carpenter 2000. Guinea pigs given scurvy: Bannerjee 1945.

“protective foods”: See, for instance, McCarrison 1922.

Animal foods contain al : Harris 1985:35–36. See also Abrams 1987:231; Davidson and Passmore 1963:192–252. Footnote. Harris 1985:35–36.

“a dietery deficiency…”: Tso 1997:32.

Stefansson argued: Stefansson 1936.

Research by Louis Newburgh: Newburgh 1923; Newburgh et al. 1930. Anon 1930a; Moulton 1930; Newburgh 1931b. “easier to believe…”: Stefansson 1946:68.

In the winter: Anon. 1928.

For three weeks: Stefansson 1946:60–89; Stefansson 1936. “In every individual specimen…”: McClel an and Du Bois 1930.

Inuit and raw meat: See Mowat 1978:96. Calories and nutrients consumed: Lieb 1929.

“The only dramatic part…”: Du Bois 1946:xii. “Both men were in…”: McClel an and Du Bois 1930. The other eight articles are Lieb 1929; Lieb and Tolstoi 1929; McClel an, Rupp, et al. 1930; McClel an et al. 1931; Tolstoi 1929a; Tolstoi 1929b; Torrey 1930; Torrey and Montu 1931.

“Mr. Stefansson makes…”: Garside 1946. Du Bois’s introduction: Du Bois 1946 (“a great many dire…,” xii; “Quite evidently…,” x).

B vitamins depleted from the body: See Carpenter 2000:213–18. “…an increased need…”: Select Committee 1973b:43–44. Vitamin C in Type 2

diabetes: Wil and

Byers 1996 (“biological y plausible…”). Metabolic syndrome and vitamin C: Ford et al. 2003. See also Bode 1997. My discussion of vitamin deficiencies is also based on interviews with Betti Jane Burri, Tim Byers, Kenneth Carpenter, John Cunningham, and Theodore Van Ital ie.

Vitamin C similar to glucose: Wil and Byers 1996; Basu and Schlorah 1982:121. Glucose and vitamin C compete: Cunningham 1988 (“global y inhibited”); Cunningham 1998. “marked fal ”: Cox et al. 1974. Footnote. Carpenter 1986: 200–204.

CHAPTER TWENTY:

UNCONVENTIONAL DIETS

Epigraphs. “Here was a treatment…”: Pennington 1954. “Does it help people…”: Brody 2002.

Liebling’s three kinds of writers: Liebling 1975:317.

Bruch’s fine-boned girl: Bruch 1957:372–73. Kuhn on process of discovery: Kuhn 1970:52–53.

Donaldson’s history: From his obituary in the New York Times, Anon. 1966; and his memoirs, Donaldson 1962 (“fat cardiacs,” 32; “the fattest meat…,”

34; “hotel portion,” 35).

Over four decades: Mackarness 1975:63–65. Patients who didn’t lose weight: Donaldson 1962 (“bread addiction,” 67; “Remember that grapefruit…,” 66;

“You are out of your mind…,” 103).

Pennington heard of Donaldson: Pennington 1952.

Gehrmann and Du Pont’s industrial-medicine division: Kehoe 1960. Gehrmann was prompted: Woody 1950. Footnote. Quoted in Pennington 1951b.

“We had urged…”: Quoted in Woody 1950.

“Notable was a lack…”: Pennington 1949. “In a few cases…”: Pennington 1953c. Footnote. Pennington 1952 (“even an apple”).

Holiday magazine: Woody 1950. Harvard symposium: Barr et al. 1953 (Hegsted’s comments, 137).

Pennington in NEJM: Pennington 1953c. JAMA took the position: Anon. 1952. Lancet: Anon. 1953.

“a surprisingly large…”: Hamlyn 1953. “Pennington’s idea…”: Greene 1953. “Pennington has hardly proved…”: Anon. 1954.

Thorpe at AMA meeting: Thorpe 1957.

JAMA stil insisted: Anon. 1958 (“adequate in al …,” “the most reasonable…,” “least harmful”). Footnote. See White 1962; Anon. 1973.

“The edibility…,”: Ohlson et al. 1955:173. Footnote. Ibid.

Ohlson initial y tested: Cederquist et al. 1952 (“subjects reported lack…”).

“Without exception…”: Ibid.

Over a ten-year period: Ohlson et al. 1955 (“dry, uninteresting…,” “sufficient to provide…,” “uniformly,” “did not appear…,” “they also appeared…,” 185).

“can only mean that replenishment…”: Ibid.:177.

Young tested diet on women: Young 1952 (“unanimous in saying…,” “despite an unusual y,” “reported that their skins…,” “No excessive fatigue…”); Young et al. 1953. Male students: Young et al. 1957 (“in every case”).

Bruch noted: Bruch 1957:353,371–76.

Leith reported: Leith 1961.

“To be honest…”: Interview, Per Björntorp. “There’s no point…”: Interview, George Bray.

“excessive fatigue…”: Cederquist et al. 1952.

“The absence of complaints…”: Wilder 1933 Bistrian and Blackburn reported: Palgi et al. 1985. “People loved it”: Interview, George Blackburn. For confirmation of the absence of hunger, see Wadden et al. 1985. Footnote. Dietz 1989.

1000 calories: Rabast et al. 1978; Rabast et al. 1979. 1,200 calories: Krehl et al. 1967. 1,320 calories: Gordon et al. 1963. 2,200 calories: Palmgren and Sjöval 1957. More than 2,700 calories: Milch et al. 1957. “encouraged to eat…”: LaRosa et al. 1980.

Comparisons with low-calorie diets: Hanssen 1936; Palmgren and Sjöval 1957; Silverstone and Lockead 1963; Peña et al. 1979 (“eat as much…”).337

Kemp’s three papers: Kemp 1963 (“One is that other…,” “a working hypothesis…,” “possible for the first time…”); Kemp 1966; Kemp 1972.

Beginning in 1956: Kemp 1972.

Atkins diet: Atkins 1972. The five adult studies: Brehm et al. 2003; Foster et al. 2003; Samaha et al. 2003; Yancy et al. 2004; Gardner et al. 2007 [the Stanford study]. The adolescent study: Sondike et al. 2003.

In two of these studies—Foster et al. 2003, and Gardner et al. 2007—the investigators also included a comparison of weight maintenance at the end of a year. In the former, those randomized to the Atkins diet maintained a greater weight loss than those assigned to the low-calorie, low-fat diet (4.4 © 6.7 vs.

2.5 © 6.3 percent of initial body weight), but the difference was not “statistical y significant.” In the latter, those randomized to the Atkins diet maintained, on average, a 10.4-pound weight loss, compared with 5.7 pounds for a “lifestyle” program that included both a low-fat, low-calorie diet and exercise. The difference between these numbers and the larger numbers that Kemp reported could be due to the fact that these modern studies were more rigorous in fol owing up on patients and measuring weight. It could be because the modern studies provided no counseling after the first two months of the trial, whereas Kemp categorized patients as having “defaulted” if they did not continue to appear at his monthly counseling sessions. Perhaps for this reason, the carbohydrate restriction after the first couple of months in the modern trials was at best modest. In Gardner et al. 2007—see p. 973 (table 2)—the subjects randomized to the Atkins diet consumed, on average, 30 percent of their calories from carbohydrates at six months, and 35 percent at twelve.