Good Calories, Bad Calories (85 page)

“nuts, fruits…” and “substantial amounts…”: Blakeslee and Stamler 1966: 41–42.

Analysis of hunter-gatherer diets: Eaton and Konner 1985. Low-fat recommendations: NRC 1989:41.

“made a mistake”: Interview, Boyd Eaton. Revised analysis: Cordain et al. 2000 (“would have contributed…,” 690). Paleolithic diets high in protein: Interviews, Loren Cordain, Melvin Konner, John Speth, Craig Stanford. See also Abrams 1987; Harris 1985; Stanford 2001; Stefansson 1946.

Histories of the saccharine controversy: Cummings 1986; Merril 1981. Footnote. Interview, Melvin Konner.

Motulsky told the Post: Quoted in Sugarman 1989.

“If the public’s diet…”: Ahrens 1979a.

Cited in Dietary Goals: Select Committee 1977a:33–34. NAS report: Committee on Diet, Nutrition, and Cancer 1982 (“could be used…,” 15). ACS low-fat diet: American Cancer Society 1984.

When Japanese women immigrate: See testimonies of Ernst Wynder and Gio Gori in Select Committee 1976:164–208. Adding fat to rat diets: Tannenbaum 1942.

Higginson noted: Maugh 1979. “difficult to reconcile”: Wil iams et al. 1981.

Critical test from the Nurses Health Study: Wil ett et al. 1987. “a good study…”: AP 1987. NCI researchers published: Jones et al. 1987. “perhaps because no one…”: Marshal 1993b.

Results from eight years of Nurses Health Study: Wil ett et al. 1992. Fourteen years: Holmes et al. 1999.

Greenwald had responded: Schatzkin et al. 1989.

“indisputable” and “a high-fat, high-calorie…”: Ibid. “supplemented with” polyunsaturates: Rogers and Longnecker 1988.

Kritchevsky published an article: Kritchevsky et al. 1984. Kritchevsky later reported: Klurfeld et al. 1989. Pariza’s similar results: Boissoneault et al. 1986.

“If you restrict…”: Interview, Mike Pariza. “overwhelmingly striking…”: Interview, Demetrius Albanes.

Neither “convincing” nor even “probable”: World Cancer Research Fund and American Institute for Cancer Research 1997: 252, 261–9. “largely nul ”: Interview, Arthur Schatzkin.

ACS guidelines: Byers et al. 2002 (“limit consumption…”); Kushi et al. 2006 (“there is little…,” “major contributors…,” “diets high in fat…,” and “may have an effect…”).

Details of the WHI: Ritenbaugh et al. 2003.

WHI results on breast cancer: Prentice et al. 2006. On heart disease and stroke: Howard, Van Horn, et al. 2006. On colon cancer: Beresford et al. 2006.

Elizabeth Nabel stated: NHLBI Communication Office. The accompanying JAMA editorials: Buzdar 2006.

WHO press release: WHO 2006. Basis of the early controversy: Marshal 1993a. Footnote. Howard, Manson, et al. 2006.

Bacon would have cal ed: Bacon 1994 (“wishful science,” 59; “stuck fast…” and “…downhil ever since,” 84).

“…no dishonesty involved…” and “pathological science”: Langmuir 1989. “If you throw money…”: Interview, Wolfgang Panofsky.

“Most drugs…”: Interview, Richard Kronmal.

Keys, the changing American diet, and the epidemic: Keys 1953. “no basis”: Keys 1971.

Keys in the 1950s on Japanese men: Keys 1957. The Seven Countries Study: Keys 1980:86; Keys et al. 1994. Japan in the 1990s: Koga et al. 1994 (“

…progressive increases…,” “remarkable reduction,” and “It is suggested…”). Average American cholesterol values: National Center for Health Statistics 2006.

Keys dismissing misdiagnosis: Keys 1957. “might have been misled…”: Keys et al. 1984.

“I’ve come to think…”: Boffey 1987.

French-Italian-Spanish and Australian paradoxes: Powles 2001. Footnote. Guberan 1979.

MONICA details and results: Kuulasmaa et al. 2000. “far and away…” and “whatever the results…”: Interview, Hugh Tunstal -Pedoe.

“…classical risk factors…”: Interview, Hugh Tunstal -Pedoe.

Jacobs visited Japan: Interview, David Jacobs. Cholesterol, stroke, and Japan: Blackburn and Jacobs 1989.

Framingham investigators provided: Anderson et al. 1987.

Most striking result: Ibid.

The NHLBI workshop: Jacobs et al. 1992. Footnote. Hul ey et al. 1992.

Rifkind’s interpretation: Interview, Basil Rifkind. Cf. Jacobs et al. 1992.

“Questions should be pursued…”: Jacobs et al. 1992.

Feynman’s lectures: Feynman 1967 (“…if your bias…” and “…absolutely sure…,” 147).83 Meta-analysis: Mann 1990 provides a good review.

Cochrane Col aboration: Taubes 1996; the Cochrane Col aboration Web site (www.cochrane.org).

“reduced or modified…”: Hooper et al. 2001.

“A major lesson…”: Keys 1975.

“The pooled effects suggest…”: Ebrahim et al. 2006.

Evidence indeed suggested: Malmros 1950; Schornagel 1953; Vartiainen and Kanerva 1947.

PART TWO: THE CARBOHYDRATE HYPOTHESIS

Epigraph. “The world…”: Furnas and Furnas 1937: 62–63.

CHAPTER FIVE:

DISEASES OF CIVILIZATION

Epigraph. “The potato…”: Sai 1967.

Schweitzer in Lambaréné: Schweitzer 1998:136–39.

Appendicitis, “On my arrival in Gabon…”: Schweitzer 1957.

Hutton’s experience: Hutton n.d. (“The Eskimo…,” 9; “tea, bread…,” 36; “The most striking…,” 35; “living on a ‘settler’ dietary,” 37; “…puny and feeble,” 21

–22).

WHO on “nutrition transition”: WHO 2003.

Keys on isolated populations: Keys in Blix 1964:54–55. Few likely to live long enough: Keys 1975.

“nasty, brutish, and short”: Hobbes 1997:100.

Diseases of civilization: Trowel and Burkitt 1981b. 91 Tanchou’s observations: Quoted in Barker 1924:50–51.

“natives mingled…”: Hol ander 1923. “dietetic and other…”: Blair 1923. Fouché reported: Fouché 1923.

Hrdli ka described: Hrdli ka 1908:187–91.

Native Americans lived longer: Ibid.:39–41.

Levin’s survey: Levin 1910.

The question of cancer: Hoffman 1915; Wil iams 1908:12–49, 50–78 (Fiji and Borneo, 42; New York and Philadelphia, 76).

Cancer and Diet: Hoffman 1937. “at a more or less alarming…”: Hoffmann 1915:30–33.

“Among some 63,000…”: Hoffman 1915:151.

“…no known reasons…”: Ibid.:147.

“It is commonly stated…”: Brown et al. 1952. See also Fog-Pulson 1949. Canadian physicians: Schaefer et al. 1975. The most comprehensive discussion of cancer in the Inuit is Stefansson 1960a.

“In a series of one hundred…”: Orenstein 1923. “It ran an uninterrupted course…”: Prentice 1923.

“to whom the fleshpot…”: Anon. 1899. Cancer absent in carnivorous populations: Wil iams 1908:44–45. “hardly holds good…”: Levin 1910.

“demanding conservation…”: Hoffman 1937:118.

“far-reaching changes”: Ibid.

Flour, sugar, and appendicitis: Rendle Short 1920. For an intel igent, early discussion of diseases of civilization, see Rabagliati 1897.

White flour had its proponents: For a good review of the refining of cereal grains, see Davidson and Passmore 1963:262–82 (“more attractive to the eye,” 265; “less liable than…,” 267).

Sugar consumption skyrocketed: Friend et al. 1979. The English were already eating: Aykroyd 1967:105. Asian nations: Davidson and Passmore 1963:275.

Darwin tel s: Darwin 1989:291. “acquired a fondness…”: Murdoch 1892. Primary items of trade: Mountford 1960:14–16. Footnotes. In Across Australia: Spencer and Gil en 1912:230. “consisted of white flour…”: Ibid.

“The true staff…”: Quoted in Le Fanu 1987:52. “One great curse…”: Quoted in Kel ock 1985:128. Lane’s hypothesis: Lane 1929.

Era of nutritional research: For a review of the early vitamin research, see McCol um 1957:201–318. Cancer as a deficiency disease: Barker 1924.

“…use of vitamin-poor white flour…”: McCarrison 1961:64. McCarrison’s 1921 lecture: McCarrison 1922.

McCarrison’s research and observations: McCarrison 1961:23–26.

Enrichment of white flour in the United States: Levenstein 1993:22. In England: Davidson and Passmore 1963:269–70. “protective foods”: McCarrison 1922.

CHAPTER SIX:

DIABETES AND THE CARBOHYDRATE HYPOTHESIS

Epigraphs. “The consumption of sugar…”: Al en 1913:146–47. “Sugar and candies…”: Duncan 1935:59.

Hindu physicians: Trowel 1975a.

“This ancient belief…”: Al en 1913:147.

The leading authorities: Ibid.:148–49.

“in the absence…”: Ibid.:150.

“If he is a poor laborer…”: Ibid.:152.

Diabetes a disease of civilization, “the rich ones…”: Ibid.:148. Footnote. Donnison 1938:23–24.

British Medical Association symposium: Charles 1907.

Physicians increasingly diagnosed diabetes: Joslin et al. 1935.

At Johns Hopkins and Massachusetts General Hospital: Gale 2002. Death rate from diabetes: Emerson and Larimore 1924 (“It is apparent…”).

“synonymous”: Interview, Ronald Arky, former president of the ADA. Al en’s declining reputation: Bliss 1982:239.

Joslin on apple consumption: Emerson and Larimore 1924. Emerson countered: Ibid.

“A high percentage…” and “must stand in some relation”: Joslin 1923:145. A third factor: Joslin 1927.

“painstakingly accumulated”: White and Joslin 1959:70.

Joslin and Himsworth piggybacked: See White and Joslin 1959:70–71; Himsworth 1935; Joslin et al. 1934; Mil s 1930. Joslin on insulin and leveling-off of mortality rates: Joslin et al. 1933. Footnote. Himsworth 1936.

Himsworth on insulin-dependent and non-insulin-dependent diabetes: Himsworth 1936.

“a smal er proportion of carbohydrate…”: Himsworth 1935:142.

“striking,” “The progressive rise…,” and “The diabetic mortality rate…”: Himsworth 1949a.

Himsworth on “…coloured races…”: Himsworth 1935:134–35.

Himsworth on Inuit: Ibid. 122–24. Diabetes among Alaskan Eskimos in 1956: Scott and Griffith 1957. Baffin Island study: Heinbecker 1928.

“fisherfolk” study: Mitchel 1930. “It would thus appear…”: Himsworth 1935.

In the 1946 and 1959 editions: Joslin et al. 1946:75–76; Joslin et al. 1959:70–71. Joslin’s Diabetes Mellitus: Marble et al. 1971.

“Though the consumption of fat…”: Himsworth 1949b.

Cohen reported: Cohen 1963. “a significantly greater prevalence”: Cohen et al. 1961.

“The quantity of sugar…”: Ibid.

Prior studied Maoris: Prior et al. 1964.

Campbel ’s research: Campbel ’s testimony in Select Committee 1973a:208–18.

“remarkable difference…” and “country cousins”: Ibid.

Campbel ’s surveys of Natal population: Campbel 1963; Cleave and Campbel 1966 (“veritable explosion…,” 25; numbers in India, 19–24; diabetes among Zulu, 34–35).

“a figure in many countries…” and “were enormously fat…”: Campbel in Select Committee 1973a:213.

Zulus eating excessive amounts of sugar: Campbel 1963.

Campbel ’s research on sugarcane cutters: Truswel et al. 1971. “diabetes is virtual y absent,” “huge output…,” and “…few occupations…”: Cleave and Campbel 1966:35. Later generations of diabetologists: Interview, Ron Arky.

“remarkably constant period…”: Campbel 1963. See also Cleave and Campbel 1966:46–49.

“acute excess”: White and Joslin 1959:70. Footnote. Joslin et al. 1946:76.

“related to sugar”: Cleave and Campbel 1966: iv.

“His ideas deserved…”: Quoted in Galton 1976:17.

Cleave was an outsider: See Wel come Library n.d.

H. L. Cleave spent the war years: Galton 1976:15; Cleave 1962:68–70.

Cleave’s intuition: Cleave and Campbel 1966:6–13.

Cavities like the canary: Ibid.:11–12.

Diabetics prone to heart disease: Joslin 1927; Wahlberg and Thomasson 1968. Diabetes, gal stones, and obesity: Joslin 1927. “The destruction of teeth…”: Joslin et al. 1946:532. See also Shlossman et al. 1990.

“The Law of Adaptation…”: Cleave and Campbel 1966:1. “Whereas cooking…”: Quoted in Galton 1976:8.

“eating of a smal …” and “A person can take down…”: Cleave 1975:8.

Peptic ulcers and lack of protein: Cleave and Campbel 1966:85–88.

“Assume that what strains…”: Ibid.:18.

“insufficient appreciation…” and “While the consumption…”: Ibid.:iii.

Cleave contested Joslin’s belief: Cleave 1956. “what was the opposite…”: Cleave and Campbel 1966:16.

Saturated fat increases: Friend et al. 1979.

Increase in sugar consumption: Cummings 1940:236. Chart. Cleaveland Campbel 1966: 16.

NAS authors did not differentiate: NRC 1989:273–90.

Keys on the 1950s Japanese: Keys, Kimura, et al. 1958. Sugar consumption in Japan: Insul et al. 1968. In the United States: Cummings 1940:236. In the U.K.: Aykroyd 1967:105.