Good Calories, Bad Calories (88 page)

Greater number of insulin receptors: Giorgino et al. 1991 (“selective growth…,” 452).

The Darwinian model of cancer development: Weinberg 2007: 413–24.

Ten thousand tril ion and “enormous opportunity:” Weinberg 1996:252.

Insulin and IGF: For reviews of their roles in cancer development, see Giovannucci 1995; Kaaks 1996; Burroughs et al. 1999; Kaaks and Lukanova 2001; LeRoith and Roberts 2003; Baserga et al. 2003; Pol ak et al. 2004. This section was also informed by interviews with Renato Baserga, Edward Giovannucci, Rudolf Kaaks, Derek LeRoith, Bruce Roberts, and Robert Weinberg.

“stumbled” upon: Interview, Renato Baserga. 216 “strong inhibition…”: Baserga 2004.

LeRoith’s experiments with IGF-deficient mice: Wu et al. 2002; Wu et al. 2003.

Cheresh has demonstrated: Brooks et al. 1997; interview, David Cheresh.

2003 meeting in London: Interview, Derek LeRoith; Novartis Foundation 2004. Studies linking hyperinsulinemia and IGF to cancer: See Kaaks and Lukanova 2001.

“People were thinking…” and “When applied simultaneously…”: Interview, Rudolf Kaaks.

“an environment that favored…”: Pol ak et al. 2004.

Live 30 to 50 percent longer: See, for instance, Masoro et al. 1982. For a good review of the history of the calorie-restriction science, see Masoro 2003.

Two possibilities: Masoro 2003.

Harrison’s experiments: Harrison et al. 1984 (“Longevities were related”). Whenever these experiments are done: See, for instance, Bertrand et al. 1980.

Oxidative stress, antioxidants, and longevity: Tuma 2001; Weinert and Timiras 2003.

Characteristics of long-lived organisms: Bartke 2002; Davenport 2003.

Genetic studies of yeast: Lin et al. 2000. Worms: Lin et al. 1997. Fruit flies: Clancy et al. 2001. Mice: Holzenberger et al. 2003; Bluher et al. 2003.

“When reduced to essentials…”: Bishop 1989.

Longevity mutations regulate dauer state: Kenyon et al. 1993. “The way these worms work…”: Interview, Cynthia Kenyon.

Ruvkun reported: Kimura et al. 1997; interview, Gary Ruvkun. Long-lived fruit-fly mutants: Clancy et al. 2001. See also Kenyon 2001.

Gene knockout experiments in mice: Holzenberger et al. 2003. Kahn’s research: Bluher et al. 2003; interview, C. Ronald Kahn.

“When food becomes limiting…”: Kenyon 2001:168.

Kenyon began a series of experiments: Interview, Cynthia Kenyon.

“Could a low-carb…”: Kenyon’s slide from her conference presentation. I’m grateful to Professor Kenyon for providing the slides.

Kenyon’s restriction of carbohydrate consumption: Interview, Cynthia Kenyon.

“…attendant therapeutic implications…”: Farris et al. 2004:1432. “dream of 60 mil ion…”: Joslin Diabetes Center 2003. Diabetologists take the same tack: See, for instance, LeRoith 2004 (“normalize” and “intensive…”).

NCEP merges both tacks: NCEP 2002 (“atherogenic diet,” I -20; “pharmaceutical modification…,” I -26).

“Weight sits like a spider…”: Wil ett 2001:35. “Excess weight…”: Stamler 1962:57.

PART THREE: OBESITY AND THE REGULATION OF WEIGHT

Epigraphs. “How may the medical…”: Stunkard and McClaren-Hume 1959. “To cultivate the faculty…”: Tanner 1869a:1.

CHAPTER FOURTEEN:

THE MYTHOLOGY OF OBESITY

Epigraph. “A col eague once defined…”: Cohen 1989:viii.

“To have our first idea…”: Bernard 1957:32–33.

“overweight and obesity result…”: USDHHS 2001:1.

“Most studies comparing…”: NRC 1989:583.

Percentage of obese Americans: NCHS 2005:275 (table 73).

Proportion consistent throughout society: Ogden et al. 2003. Interview, Katherine Flegal. Children not exempt: NCHS 2005:9, 279 (table 74). Footnote.

Friedman 2003; interviews, Jeffrey Friedman and Katherine Flegal.

“toxic environment…”: Quoted on Brownel ’s Yale University faculty information Web page (http://www.yale.edu/psychology/FacInfo/Brownel .htm).

“Cheeseburgers and french fries…”: Brownel and Horgen 2004:8. “improved prosperity…”: Nestle 2003.

“risen three-fold” and “As incomes rise…”: WHO 2004.

CDC, “attributable primarily…”: Wright et al. 2004.

USDA on increases in nutrient intake: Gerrior and Bente 2001: table 1. Chart. Wright, et al. 2004. Footnote. USDA Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion 1998.

“It appears that efforts…”: Heini and Weinsier 1997.

Lack of CDC evidence on physical activity: Interview, Wil iam Dietz, director of CDC Division of Nutrition and Physical Activity. No less active at end of 1990s: CDC 2001. $200 mil ion a year: Lichtenstein 1972. 2005 numbers: International Health, Racquet and Sportsclub Association 2005. Footnote.

Interview, Mike May, spokesman for the Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association.

“exercise explosion…”: Gilmore 1977. “new fitness revolution…”: Cohn 1980.

Obesity prevalent among the poorest: Bray 1998. NHANES studies confirmed: NCHS 2005:275 (table 73). Stunkard reported: Goldblatt et al. 1965. See also Stunkard 1976a.

Obesity blamed on high-fructose corn syrup: Critser 2003:138–40; Bray et al. 2004; Pol an 2006:100–108.

“As the typical American diet…” and “If the Pima Indians could…”: NIDDK 1995:19.

Russel noted: Russel 1975 (“exhibit a degree…,” 66; Fat Louisa, 67).

“Especial y wel -nourished…”: Hrdli ka 1908:156–57.

Pima had lived as hunter-gatherers and agriculturalists: Aldritch 1966; Audubon 1906; Bartlett 1965; Castetter and Bel 1942; Cook and Whittemore 1893; Cunningham 1996; Curtain 1949; Davis 1962; Dobyns 1978; Dobyns 1989; Eccleston 1950; Ezel 1961; Griffin 1943 (“sprightly,” “fine health,” and

“the greatest abudance…,” 34); Harris 1960; Hrdli ka 1906; Hrdli ka 1908; Jones 1967; Rea 1983; Reid 1858; Russel 1975 (“unidentified worms,” 81; also mentioned in Audubon 1906:150); Smith et al. 1994; Spicer 1962; Spier 1978; Webb 1992.

“by way of Tucson…”: Russel 1975:30.

“the years of famine”: Smith et al. 1994:409. “entirely absorbed…”: Spicer 1962:148–50.

“Certain articles…”: Russel 1975:66. Hrdli ka suggested: Hrdli ka 1908:156–57.

Women worked as pack animals: Russel 1975:66.

“everything obtainable…”: Hrdli ka 1906. “sugar, coffee and canned…”: Dobyns 1989:61.

Sioux diet with government rations: Jackson 1994.

According to Kraus: Kraus 1954. Hesse noted: Hesse 1959.

Over the next twenty years: Price et al. 1993. “large quantities of refined…,” “started to carry…,” and “Soda pop…”: Justice 1994:116–17.

“The only question…” Select Committee 1973a:256–57. “to some extent a result…” and “many of the poorer individuals…”: Dobyns 1989: 100–101.

Obesity in the South Dakoa Sioux: Stene and Roberts 1928. Arizona Apaches: Clifford 1963. North Carolina Cherokees: Stein et al. 1965. Oklahoma tribes: West 1981 (“Men are very fat…,” 132).240 “An overwhelming majority…”: Meriam et al. 1928. University of Chicago report: Stene and Roberts 1928.

“…visit to Czechoslovakia…”: Osancova 1975.

Obesity in African Americans in Charleston: Grant and Groom 1959. In Chile: Arteaga 1974. In Trinidad: McCarthy 1966.

In Jamaica: Richards and de Casseres 1974.

In Rarotonga: Prior 1971. Among Zulus: Slome et al. 1960. Bantu “pensioners”: Walker 1964. “Although dietary habits…”: Adadevoh 1974. For other studies of obesity in impoverished populations, see Reichley et al. 1987; Seftel et al. 1965; Haddock 1969; Johnson 1970; Tul och 1962:72–75.

“It is difficult to explain…”: Richards and de Casseres 1974.

“different only in degree…”: Gladwel 1998.