Good Calories, Bad Calories (87 page)

“from a practical point of view…”: Gordon et al. 1977:712.

“In the search…”: Kannel et al. 1979.

Rarely mentioned carbohydrates: See Chait et al. 1993. Footnote. “that epidemiological studies have…”: Chait et al. 1993:3014.

Monounsaturated fats: Mattson and Grundy 1985; Grundy 1986. Keys assumed neutrality: Keys et al. 1957. Never been tested: Interview, Scott Grundy.

Lyon Diet Heart Trial: Lorgeril et al. 1999. GISSI-Prevenzione: Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio del a Sopravvivenza nel ’Infarto Miocardico 1999.

Stearic acid metabolizes to oleic: Grundy 1994. A good review of the effects of different fats on LDL and HDL cholesterol can be found in Katan et al.

1995.

“Everything should be made…”: Shapiro 2006:231. This quote may be a paraphrase of the fol owing statement: “The supreme goal of al theory is to make the irreducible basic elements as simple and as few as possible without having to surrender the adequate representation of a single datum of experience” (see http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein).

“marginal risk factor”: Gordon et al. 1977:710. Only a few percentage points higher: Castel i et al. 1977. “If you look in the literature…”: Ibid.

AHA nutrition guidelines: Krauss et al. 1996; Krauss et al. 2000. “30-percent-fat recommendation…”: Interview, Ronald Krauss.

“this conventional notion…”:Ibid.

“blazingly obvious…”: Ibid. Footnote. Adams and Schumaker 1969; Hammond and Fisher 1971.

Krauss’s three papers: Shen et al. 1981; Krauss and Burke 1982; Teng et al. 1983. “remarkable heterogeneity…”: Interview, Ronald Krauss. 172 First report of apo B elevation in heart-disease patients: Sniderman et al. 1980. Disproportionate elevation in apo B: Teng et al. 1983.

Smal , dense LDL more atherogenic: Teng et al. 1983. “little bits of sand”: Interview, Al an Sniderman. Role of oxidized LDL: Witztum and Steinberg 1991.

Pattern A and B and the atherogenic profile: Austin et al. 1988. Diabetics have identical pattern: See Chait and Bierman 1994.

Diet and the atherogenic profile: See Krauss 2005 for a recent review. “average American diet”: Interview, Ronald Krauss. The more saturated fat: Dreon et al. 1998.

Renamed atherogenic dyslipidemia: See, for instance, Grundy, Hansen, et al. 2004.

“Wel , I would rather…”: Interview, Melissa Austin.

Best predictor apo B: Wal dius et al. 2001. “doesn’t tel you anything…”: Interview, Goran Wal dius. 175 LDL clearance and disposal mechanism: Brown and Goldstein 1985.

For an overal review of VLDL and LDL metabolism and how to increase LDL cholesterol by increasing VLDL, see Mayes and Botham 2004. See also Berneis and Krauss 2002; DeFronzo 1992.

“It’s the overproduction of VLDL…”: Interview, Ernst Schaefer.

Krauss’s model: Berneis and Krauss 2002.

“I am now convinced…”: Interview, Ronald Krauss.

Ahrens on high-carbohydrate diets in undernourished populations: Ahrens et al. 1961.

Poverty in the Mediterranean after World War I : See, for instance, Al baugh 1953.

CHAPTER TEN:

THE ROLE OF INSULIN

Epigraph. “The suppression of inconvenient…”: Greene 1953.

Vague on “android obesity,” etc.: Vague 1956.

Gofman on the obesity/heart-disease association: Gofman and Young 1963.

Speculation voiced by Joslin: Joslin 1928:103. Man and Peters measured cholesterol: Man and Peters 1935. Albrink reported: Albrink et al. 1962.

Joslin’s similar observation: Joslin et al. 1959:275. Albrink confirmed Gofman’s observation: Albrink and Meigs 1965.

“abnormal metabolic patterns”: Albrink 1963.

“purified carbohydrates”: Albrink 1965.

Arcane tests before 1960: Interviews, Gerold Grodsky and Roger Unger. “a revolution in…”: Karolinska Institute 1977.

Yalow and Berson showed: Yalow and Berson 1960. Obese had elevated insulin levels: Yalow et al. 1965.

Insulin-resistant: Berson and Yalow 1965; Berson and Yalow 1970 (“a state…,” 389).

“it is desirable…”: Berson and Yalow 1970:390.

Reaven began his investigations: Reaven et al. 1963.

Reaven’s two-part hypothesis: Interview, Gerald Reaven.

Reaven and Farquhar had reported: Farquhar et al. 1966; Reaven et al. 1967.

Working to establish validity of hypothesis: See Reaven and Olefsky 1978. First insulin-resistance test: Shen et al. 1970. DeFronzo refined the “gold standard”: DeFronzo et al. 1979.

Reaven’s Banting Lecture: Reaven 1988 (“Although this concept…”).

Three Framingham-like studies: Eschwege et al. 1985; Pyorala 1979; Welborn and Wearne 1979.

“a whole host of…”: Interview, Ralph DeFronzo. NCEP diagnostic criteria: NCEP 2002:I -27.

Reaven’s article on Syndrome X: Reaven and Chen 1996.

Silverman on Reaven’s results: Quoted in Kolata 1987.

Cognitive dissonance: Festinger 1957. Kuhn 1970:77–91 (“the awareness…,” 81; “They wil devise…,” 78).

Krauss and Reaven reported: Reaven et al. 1993. “coequal partner…”: NCEP 2002:I -26.

Metabolic syndrome official y entered: See NCEP 2002 (“the primary driving force…,” I -36; “mass elevations…,” I -28); Grundy, Hansen, et al. 2004; Grundy, Brewer, et al. 2004. Grundy acknowledged: Interview, Scott Grundy.

“commonly in persons…”: NCEP 2002:I -11. Footnote. Grundy, Hansen, et al. 2004 (“very high-carbohydrate…,” 553).

CHAPTER ELEVEN:

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF DIABETES

Epigraph. “Does carbohydrate cause…”: Joslin 1927.

“extraordinarily high incidence”: Bradley 1971:446.

“numerous and as yet…”: Ibid.:460.

Assumption that saturated fat is the nutritional agent: USDHHS 1988:257–58 (“The frequent…,” 258). The ADA recommendations: ADA 1971.

Atherogenic American diet high in fat and salt: NCEP 2002:I -18.

The vascular complications of diabetes: Donnel y et al. 2000.

“the effects of insulin…”: Feener and Dzau 2005:874. “another possibility…”: Johnstone and Nesto 2005:978.

First reported in rabbits: Duff and McMil an 1949. In chickens: Katz et al. 1958 (“one factor…”).

In dogs: Cruz et al. 1961.

Stout published studies: Stout 1968; Stout and Val ance-Owen 1969 (“ingestion of large quantities…” and “The carbohydrate is disposed…”); Stout 1969; Stout 1970; Stout et al. 1975. Footnote. “atherogenic hormone”: DeFronzo 1997.

For a good review of the oxidative stress hypothesis, see Giugliano et al. 1996.

“conform to a tightly…”: Bunn and Higgins 1981.

For a relatively simple discussion of glycation and AGEs, see Cerami et al. 1987. My discussion of AGEs was also based on interviews with John Baynes, Michael Brownel , Frank Bunn, Anthony Cerami, Vincent Monnier, Ben Szwergold, and Helen Vlassara.

Cerami’s work on hemoglobin A1c: Koenig et al. 1976. Bunn’s work: Gabbay et al. 1977. See also Bunn et al. 1978.

AGEs and the eye: See Stitt 2001. AGEs and other diabetic complications: See Singh et al. 2001 for a review.

AGEs, col agen, and diabetes as accelerated aging: Monnier et al. 1984.

“If you remove the aorta…”: Interview, Anthony Cerami.

Oxidized LDL and heart disease: Steinberg 1997. Oxidized LDL, reactive oxygen species and glycation: Bucala et al. 1993. “markedly elevated”: Stitt et al. 1997. Footnote. “rendering the HDL…”: Hedrick et al. 2000.

“the adverse cardiovascular…”: Susic et al. 2004.

“Current evidence points…”: Peppa et al. 2003.

CHAPTER TWELVE:

SUGAR

Epigraph. “M. Delacroix…”: Bril at-Savarin 1986:104.

Reaven initiated study of glycemic index: Crapo et al. 1977 (“traditional y held tenet…”). Reaven more interested in insulin: Interview, Gerald Reaven.

Jenkins and Wolever’s research: Jenkins et al. 1981. “tremendous”: Interview, Thomas Wolever.

Vitriolic debate: Interviews, Gerald Reaven (“Ice cream has…”), David Jenkins, and Thomas Wolever. See also Coulston and Reaven 1997 and the response, Wolever 1997.

Fructose and the glycemic index: Mayes 1993.

“We see no reason…”: Bantle et al. 1983. Official government position: Glinsmann et al. 1986:s65–66. “sucrose or sucrose-containing foods…”: ADA 2006.

“no conclusive evidence…”: Glinsmann et al. 1986:s15.

Surgeon General’s Report: USDHHS 1988:111. Diet and Health: NRC 1989:9.

HFCS and climbing sugar consumption: Putnam et al. 2002:8.

Sugar and starch consumption over the twentieth century: USDA 2000; Putnam et al. 2002. Sugar as dietary nuisance: See, for instance, Mayer 1976.

Fructose content of fruit: “Sweetener” entry, Encyclopædia Brittanica. Fructose perceived as healthy: See, for instance, Brody 1983b; Donohue 1988.

Metabolism of glucose and fructose: Shafrir 1991. “constitutes a metabolic load…”: Interview, Eleazar Shafrir. Footnote. Higgins 1916.

“In the 1980s…”: Interview, Judith Hal frisch. Sugar raises cholesterol: Swanson et al. 1992. For unbiased reviews of metabolic effects of fructose, see Hol enbeck 1993; IOM 2002:297–303.

“pattern of fructose metabolism”: Mayes 1993. Fructose causes insulin resistance: Shafrir 1985. Reiser observed in humans: Reiser et al. 1981.

Fructose-induced hypertension: See Hodges and Rebel o 1983; Hwang et al. 1987.

“This is real y the harmful…”: Interview, Peter Mayes.

Fructose and AGEs: Bunn and Higgins 1981; Dil s 1983. Ten times more effective: McPherson et al. 1988; Suárez et al. 1989. More resistant AGEs: Suárez et al. 1995. Increases LDL oxidation: Mowri et al. 2000.

The COMA report: U.K. Department of Health 1989:43.

“The panel concluded…”: Ibid.

Dedicated an entire issue: ACJN, November 1993. “Further studies…”: Tappy and Jéquier 1993.

Institute of Medicine spent twenty pages: IOM 2002:295–324 (“insufficient evidence,” 323; no reason to pursue research, 323–24).

Half a dozen research projects: NIH CRISP database search, keywords “fructose” and “sucrose.” 203 “no conclusive evidence…”: Glinsmann et al.

1986:s65–66.

CHAPTER THIRTEEN:

DEMENTIA, CANCER, AND AGING

Epigraph. “The bottom line…”: Tanzi and Parson 2000:201.

NIH funding of Alzheimer’s research 1970s and 1980s: NIH CRISP database search, keywords “Alzheimer’s” and “dementia.” 205 Apo E4 and Alzheimer’s: Strittmatter et al. 1993. Alzheimer’s researchers blame cholesterol and saturated fat: See, for instance, Mattson 2004. Footnote. See, for instance, Marx 2001 (“link between”).

Japanese Americans vs. Japanese: Graves et al. 1996. African Americans vs. rural Africans: Hendrie et al. 2001.

Studies in large populations: Ott et al. 1999 (Rotterdam: “direct or indirect”); Leibson et al. 1997 (Minnesota); Luchsinger et al. 2001 (Manhattan); Arvanitakis et al. 2004 (Midwest); Peila et al. 2002 (Honolulu). Hyperinsulinemia and metabolic syndrome: Kuusisto et al. 1997; Vanhanen et al. 2006.

Confusion of Alzheimer’s with vascular dementia: See Kalaria 2002; Zekry et al. 2002; Korczyn 2002.

Snowdon’s nun study: Snowdon 2003.

Accumulation of vascular dementia accelerates Alzheimer’s: See, for instance, Ravona-Springer et al. 2003.

Amyloid precursor protein exists natural y: Interview, Rudolph Tanzi.

AGEs in plaques and tangles: Yan et al. 1994; Smith et al. 1994; Vitek et al. 1994. In immature plaques: Sasaki et al. 1998.

The AGEs-Alzheimer’s hypothesis: Grossman 2003; Obrenovich and Monnier 2004; Moreira et al. 2005.

Involvement of insulin: Qiu et al. 1998.

Animal experiments: Farris et al. 2003; Mil er et al. 2003; Farris et al. 2004. Footnote. Kim et al. 2007.

Boosting insulin enhances memory: Craft et al. 1996. In 2003, Craft reported: Watson et al. 2003. “We’re not saying…”: Interview, Suzanne Craft.

Selkoe and Tanzi on “attendant therapeutic implications…”: Farris et al. 2004.

Higginson’s studies of cancer incidence: Reviewed in Higginson 1981; Higginson 1997. “It would seem, therefore…”: Quoted in Dol and Peto 1981:1197.

At least 75 to 80 percent: Dol and Peto 1981:1256–60.

Role of man-made chemicals minimal, diet maximal: Ibid.:1256 (table 20).

“extrinsic” and “environmental factors”: See Maugh 1979 and Dol and Peto 1981:1197. “carcinogenic soup”: Greenberg 1979. “It appears that…”: Higginson 1983. Geneva vs. Birmingham, Sweden vs. Japan: Maugh 1979. Footnote. Quoted in Maugh 1979.

Cold Spring Harbor talks: Hiatt et al. 1977:605–956.

“gross aspects…” and “ingestion of traces…”: Dol and Peto 1981:1258. Cancer in Seventh-day Adventists: Phil ips 1975.

Cancer in Mormons: Lyon and Sorenson 1978; Lyon et al. 1980. “among the biggest…”: Dol and Armstrong 1981:103. For the next twenty years: See, for instance, Wynder et al. 1983; Carrol and Kritchevsky 1993; U.K. Department of Health 1998.

Failed to identify diet-related carcinogens: Interviews, W. Robert Bruce, Richard Dol and Robert Weinberg. Cancer epidemiologists made little attempt: See, for instance, World Cancer Research Fund and American Institute for Cancer Research 1997: 509–19; U.K. Department of Health 1998:189–207.

Cleave had suggested: Cleave 1975:28–38. Yudkin on five nations: Yudkin 1986:137. Diet and Health on carbohydrates: NRC 1989:282–83.

“strikingly similar”: Giovanucci 2001.

Rous’s semi-starvation research: Rous 1914. McCay reported: McCay et al. 1935. Tannenbaum’s research: Reviewed in Tannenbaum 1959 (“many types of tumors…,” 530; “pathologic changes…,” 523).

Hormone-dependent factors linked to cancers: Armstrong 1977. Increase in cancer incidence with weight gain: Dol and Peto 1981:1234; World Cancer Research Fund and American Institute for Cancer Research 1997:371–73. Obesity, cancer, and estrogen production: See, for instance, Bal ard-Barbash 1999.

Warburg’s fermentation work: See Warburg 1956. Tumors starved of fuel: Tannenbaum 1959:530. Footnote. Tannenbaum 1959:524.

Early observations of glucose intolerance in cancer patients: Glicksman et al. 1956. See also Kessler 1971. Unless insulin was added: Temin 1967; Temin 1968. Adrenal and liver-cel cancers: Koontz and Iwahashi 1981. For a review of this research, see Del Giudice et al. 1998. “intensely stimulated…”: Heuson et al. 1967:359. “exquisitely sensitive…”: Osborne et al. 1976:4539.