Everyone Is African (23 page)

14
. U. Neisser et al., “Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns,”
American Psychologist
51 (1996): p. 77.

15
. Ibid.

16
. R. E. Nisbett et al., “Intelligence: New Findings and Theoretical Developments,”
American Psychologist
67, no. 2 (2012): 130–59.

17
. Herrnstein and Murray,
Bell Curve
, p. 318.

18
. Ibid., p. 276.

19
. Neisser et al., “Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns”; Nisbett et al., “Intelligence: New Findings.”

20
. Herrnstein and Murray,
Bell Curve
, p. 276.

21
. Ibid., pp. 298–99.

22
. Ibid., p. 311.

23
. Rushton and Jensen, “Race Differences in Cognitive Ability.”

24
. Ibid., pp. 265–66.

25
. L. S. Gottfredson, “What If the Hereditarian Hypothesis Is True?”
Psychology, Public Policy, and Law
11, no. 2 (2005): 316.

26
. R. E. Nisbett, “Heredity, Environment, and Race Differences in IQ: A Commentary on Rushton and Jensen,”
Psychology, Public Policy, and Law
11, no. 2 (2005): 302.

27
. R. J. Sternberg, “There Are No Public-Policy Implications: A Reply to Rushton and Jensen,”
Psychology, Public Policy, and Law
11, no. 2 (2005): 295.

28
. R. J. Sternberg, “Intelligence,”
Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience
14, no. 1 (2012): 24.

29
. C. S. Spearman, “‘General Intelligence,' Objectively Determined and Measured,”
American Journal of Psychology
15, no. 2 (1904): 201–92.

30
. Sternberg, “Intelligence,” p. 21.

31
. R. J. Sternberg, E. L. Grigorenko, and K. K. Kidd, “Intelligence, Race, and Genetics,”
American Psychologist
60, no. 2 (2005): 47.

32
. Nisbett et al., “Intelligence: New Findings,” p. 131.

33
. Ibid.

34
. Sternberg, “Intelligence.”

35
. R. C. Lewontin, “Race and Intelligence,”
Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
26 (1970): 2–8.

36
. Nisbett et al., “Intelligence: New Findings,” p. 132.

37
. Herrnstein and Murray,
Bell Curve
, p. 105.

38
. Ibid., p. 132.

39
. Ibid., p. 107.

40
. Nisbett et al., “Intelligence: New Findings.”

41
. R. Plomin, “Child Development and Molecular Genetics: 14 Years Later,”
Child Development
84, no. 1 (2013): 104–20.

42
. J. R. Flynn,
What Is Intelligence? Beyond the Flynn Effect
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), p. 2.

43
. Nisbett et al., “Intelligence: New Findings.”

44
. Ibid.

45
. T. C. Daley et al., “IQ on the Rise: The Flynn Effect in Rural Kenyan Children,”
Psychological Science
14, no. 3 (2003): 215–19; G. Meisenberg et al., “The Flynn Effect in the Caribbean: Generational Change in Test Performance in Dominica,”
Mankind Quarterly
46 (2005): 29–70.

46
. Nisbett et al., “Intelligence: New Findings,” p. 140.

47
. Ibid., p. 141.

48
. Ibid.

49
. R. Plomin and M. Rutter, “Child Development, Molecular Genetics, and What to Do with Genes Once They Are Found,”
Child Development
69, no. 4 (1998): 1223–42.

50
. R. Plomin, “Child Development and Molecular Genetics: 14 Years Later,”
Child Development
84, no. 1 (2013): 104.

51
. M. Trzaskowski et al., “DNA Evidence for Strong Genetic Stability and Increasing Heritability of Intelligence from Age 7 to 12,”
Molecular Psychiatry
19, no. 3 (2014): 380–84.

52
. C. F. Chabris et al., “Most Reported Genetic Associations with General Intelligence Are Probably False Positives,”
Psychological Science
23, no. 11 (2011): 1314–23.

53
. B. Benyamin et al., “Childhood Intelligence Is Heritable, Highly Polygenic and Associated with
FNBP1L
,”
Molecular Psychiatry
19, no. 2 (2014): 253–58; G. Davies et al., “Genome-Wide Association Studies Establish That Human Intelligence Is Highly Heritable and Polygenic,”
Molecular Psychiatry
6, no. 10 (2011): 996–1005.

54
. Gould,
Mismeasure of Man
, rev. ed., p. 187.

55
. Benyamin et al., “Childhood Intelligence Is Heritable”; Davies et al., “Genome-Wide Association Studies.”

56
. For instance, using an analogy of growing corn in Iowa as opposed to the Mojave Desert to illustrate environmental differences, Herrnstein and Murray write in
The Bell Curve
, “The environment for American Blacks has been closer to the Mojave and the environment for American whites has been closer to Iowa” (p. 298).

C
HAPTER
7: T
HE
P
ERCEPTION OF
R
ACE

1
. G. Hellenthal et al., “A Genetic Atlas of Human Admixture History,”
Science
343, no. 6172 (2014): 747–51.

2
. B. M. Henn et al., “Genomic Ancestry of North Africans Supports Back-to-Africa Migrations,”
PLoS Genetics
8, no. 1 (2012): e1002397.

3
. “Companion website for ‘A Genetic Atlas of Human Admixture History,'”
http://admixturemap.paintmychromosomes.com
(accessed February 23, 2014).

4
. All dates for mitochondrial divergences listed in this chapter are from Soares et al., “Correcting for Purifying Selection: An Improved Human Mitochondrial Molecular Clock,”
American Journal of Human Genetics
84, no. 6 (2009): 740–59.

5
. A. Zoutendyk, A. C. Kopec, and A. E. Mourant, “The Blood Groups of the Hottentots,”
American Journal of Physical Anthropology
13, no. 4 (1955): 691–97.

6
. South African History Online, “The Battle of Blood River,”
http://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/battle-blood-river
(accessed April 28, 2014).

7
. G. Chin and E. Culotta, “The Science of Inequality,”
Science
344 (2014): 819–21.

8
. M. Rassmussen et al., “An Aboriginal Australian Genome Reveals Separate Human Dispersals into Asia,”
Science
334 (2011): pp. 94–98.

9
. G. R. Summerhayes et al., “Human Adaptation and Plant Use in Highland New Guinea 49,000 to 44,000 Years Ago,”
Science
330, no. 6186 (2010): 78–81.

10
. C. N. Johnson and B. W. Brook, “Reconstructing the Dynamics of Ancient Human Populations from Radiocarbon Dates: 10,000 Years of Population Growth in Australia,”
Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series B
278 (2011): 3748–54.

11
. Clements, N, “The Tasmanian Black War: A Tragic Case Lest We Remember?”
The Conversation
,
http://theconversation.com/tasmanias-black-war-a-tragic-case-of-lest-we-remember-25663
(accessed June 22, 2014).

12
. Australian Government, Department of Immigration and Border Protection, “Fact Sheet 8. Abolition of the ‘White Australia' Policy,”
http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/08abolition.htm
(accessed April 19, 2014).

13
. Ibid.

14
. M. Raghavan et al., “Upper Palaeolithic Siberian Genome Reveals Dual Ancestry of Native Americans,”
Nature
505 (2014): 87–91; M. C. Dulik et al., “Mitochondrial DNA and Y Chromosome Variation Provides Evidence for a Recent Common Ancestry between Native Americans and Indigenous Altaians,”
American Journal of Human Genetics
90, no. 2 (2012): 229–46; M. V. Derenko et al., “The Presence of Mitochondrial Haplogroup X in Altaians from South Siberia,”
American Journal of Human Genetics
69, no. 1 (2001): 237–41.

15
. For a photograph of the document, see
http://people.umass.edu/derrico/amherst/34_41_114_fn.jpeg
(accessed April 27, 2014). See also P. D'Errico, “Jeffrey Amherst and Smallpox Blankets,”
http://people.umass.edu/derrico/amherst/lord_jeff.html
(accessed April 27, 2014).

16
. “Voyages,”
Trans Atlantic Slave Trade Database
,
http://www.slavevoyages.org/tast/index.faces
(accessed December 24, 2013).

17
. For texts of the original documents, see
http://library.uwb.edu/guides/usimmigration/18%20stat%20477.pdf
,
http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=47
,
http://www.sanfranciscochinatown.com/history/1892gearyact.html
,
http://library.uwb.edu/guides/usimmigration/39%20stat%20874.pdf
(accessed May 3, 2014).

18
. Except where otherwise noted, the examples described in this paragraph are derived from Hellenthal et al., “Genetic Atlas of Human Admixture History.”

19
. Statement by Alan Goodman in the transcript from episode 1 of the PBS series
Race: The Power of an Illusion
,
https://www.pbs.org/race/000_About/002_04-about-01-01.htm
(accessed April 19, 2014).

20
. Ibid. (accessed July 15, 2012).

21
. United States Census Bureau, “Race,”
http://www.census.gov/topics/population/race.html
(accessed June 25, 2014).

22
. P. N. Ossorio, “Myth and Mystification: The Science of Race and IQ,” in
Race and the Genetic Revolution: Science, Myth, and Culture
, eds. S. Krimsky and K. Sloan (New York: Columbia University Press, 2011).

23
. Ibid. The portions in quotation marks are quoted by Ossorio from N. J. Smelser, W. J. Wilson, and F. Mitchell, eds., introduction to
America Becoming: Racial Trends and Their Consequences, v. 1
(Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2001), p. 4.

E
PILOGUE

1
. R. Bowden et al., “Genomic Tools for Evolution and Conservation in the Chimpanzee:
Pan troglodytes ellioti
Is a Genetically Distinct Population,”
PLoS Genetics
8, no. 3 (2012): e1002504.

2
. D. N. Livingstone, “The Preadamite Theory and the Marriage of Science and Religion,”
Transactions of the American Philosophical Society
, New Series, 82, no. 3 (1992): 1–78.

3
. N. Wade,
A Troublesome Inheritance: Genes, Race and Human History
(New York: Penguin, 2014), pp. 121–22.

4
. N. A. Rosenberg et al., “Clines, Clusters, and the Effect of Study Design on the Inference of Human Population Structure,”
PLoS Genetics
1, no. 6 (2005): e70,
http://www.plosgenetics.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.0010070
(accessed September 14, 2014).

5
. G. Coop et al., letter to the editor,
New York Times
, August 10, 2014,
http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/10/books/review/letters-a-troublesome-inheritance.html?_r=1
(accessed September 14, 2014).

6
. T. Dobzhansky, “Nothing in Biology Makes Sense except in the Light of Evolution,”
American Biology Teacher
35 (1973): 125–29.

7
. Gallup. “Evolution, Creationism, Intelligent Design,”
http://www.gallup.com/poll/21814/evolution-creationism-intelligent-design.aspx
(accessed June 22, 2014).

Allison, A. C. “Protection Afforded by Sickle-Cell Trait against Subtertian Malarial Infection.”
British Medical Journal
1, no. 4857 (1954): 290–94.

American Kennel Club. “Breed Matters.”
https://www.akc.org/breeds
(accessed May 3, 2014).

American Society of Hematology. “Statement on Screening for Sickle Cell Trait and Athletic Participation.”
http://www.hematology.org/Advocacy/Statements/2650.aspx
(accessed June 25, 2014).

Australian Government, Department of Immigration and Border Protection. “Fact Sheet 8. Abolition of the ‘White Australia' Policy.”
http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/08abolition.htm
(accessed April 19, 2014).

Behar, D. M. et al. “A ‘Copernican' Reassessment of the Human Mitochondrial DNA Tree from Its Root.”
American Journal of Human Genetics
90, no. 4 (2012): 675–84.

Beleza, S. et al. “The Timing of Pigmentation Lightening in Europeans.”
Molecular Biology and Evolution
30, no. 1 (2013): 24–35.

Benyamin, B. et al. “Childhood Intelligence Is Heritable, Highly Polygenic and Associated with
FNBP1L
.”
Molecular Psychiatry
19, no. 2 (2014): 253–58.

Billings, P. R. et al. “Discrimination as a Consequence of Genetic Testing.”
American Journal of Human Genetics
50, no. 3 (1992): 476–82.

Bowden, R. et al. “Genomic Tools for Evolution and Conservation in the Chimpanzee:
Pan troglodytes ellioti
Is a Genetically Distinct Population.”
PLoS Genetics
8, no. 3 (2012).

British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). “Episode 3, Fatal Impacts.”
Racism: A History
.
http://topdocumentaryfilms.com/racism-history
(accessed June 25, 2014).

Brody, H., and L. M. Hunt. “BiDil: Assessing a Race-Based Pharmaceutical.”
Annals of Family Medicine
4, no. 6 (2006): 556–60.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “Adult Cigarette Smoking in the United States: Current Estimates.”
http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/adult_data/cig_smoking/#state
(accessed January 12, 2013).

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “U. S. Cancer Statistics: An Interactive Atlas.”
http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/DCPC_INCA/DCPC_INCA.aspx
(accessed January 12, 2013).

Cequeira, C. C. et al. “Predicting
Homo
Pigmentation Phenotype through Genomic Data:
From Neanderthal to James Watson.”
American Journal of Human Biology
24, no. 5 (2012): 705–709.

Chabris, C. F. “IQ Since ‘The Bell Curve.'”
Commentary
106 (1998): 33–40.
http://www.wjh.harvard.edu/~cfc/Chabris1998a.html
(accessed February 5, 2013).

Chabris, C. F. et al. “Most Reported Genetic Associations with General Intelligence Are Probably False Positives.”
Psychological Science
23, no. 11 (2011): 1314–23.

Chambers, I. et al. “Functional Expression Cloning of
Nanog
, a Pluripotency Sustaining Factor in Embryonic Stem Cells.”
Cell
113, no. 5 (2003): 643–55.

Chin, G., and E. Culotta. “The Science of Inequality: What the Numbers Tell Us.”
Science
344, no. 6186 (2014): 818–21.

Clemens, J. D. et al. “ABO Blood Groups and Cholera: New Observations on Specificity of Risk and Modification of Vaccine Efficacy.”
Journal of Infectious Disease
159, no. 4 (1989): 770–73.

Clements, N. “The Tasmanian Black War: A Tragic Case Lest We Remember?”
The Conversation.
http://theconversation.com/tasmanias-black-war-a-tragic-case-of-lest-we-remember-25663
(accessed June 22, 2014).

Coalition for Genetic Fairness “The History of GINA.”
http://www.geneticalliance.org/ginaresource.history
(accessed January 27, 2013).

“Companion website for ‘A Genetic Atlas of Human Admixture History.'”
http://admixturemap.paintmychromosomes.com
(accessed February 23, 2014).

Coop, G. et al. Letter to the editor.
New York Times
, August 10, 2014.
http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/10/books/review/letters-a-troublesome-inheritance.html?_r=1
(accessed September 14, 2014).

Cruciani, F. et al. “A Revised Root for the Human Y Chromosomal Phylogenetic Tree: The Origin of Patrilineal Diversity in Africa.”
American Journal of Human Genetics
88, no. 6 (2011): 814–18.

Currat, M. et al. “Molecular Analysis of the Beta-Globin Gene Cluster in the Niokholo Mandenka Population Reveals a Recent Origin of the Beta-S Senegal Mutation.”
American Journal of Human Genetics
70, no. 1 (2002): 207–23.

D'Errico, P. “Jeffrey Amherst and Smallpox Blankets.”
http://people.umass.edu/derrico/amherst/lord_jeff.html
(accessed April 27, 2014).

Daley, T. C. et al. “IQ on the Rise: The Flynn Effect in Rural Kenyan Children.”
Psychological Science
14, no. 3 (2003): 215–19.

Darwin, C. R.
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life
. London: John Murray, 1859.

———.
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life
. 4th ed. London: John Murray, 1866.

———.
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life
. 5th ed. London: John Murray, 1869.

Davies, G. et al. “Genome-Wide Association Studies Establish That Human Intelligence Is Highly Heritable and Polygenic.”
Molecular Psychiatry
6, no. 10 (2011): 996–1005.

Derenko, M. V. et al. “The Presence of Mitochondrial Haplogroup X in Altaians from South Siberia.”
American Journal of Human Genetics
69, no. 1 (2001): 237–41.

Dobzhansky, T. “Nothing in Biology Makes Sense except in the Light of Evolution.”
American Biology Teacher
35 (1973): 125–29.

Dulik, M. C. et al. “Mitochondrial DNA and Y Chromosome Variation Provides Evidence for a Recent Common Ancestry between Native Americans and Indigenous Altaians.”
American Journal of Human Genetics
90, no. 2 (2012): 229–46.

Edwards, A. W. F. “Human Genetic Diversity: Lewontin's Fallacy.”
BioEssays
25, no. 8 (2003): 798–801.

Ehlers, C. L. “Variations in
ADH
and
ALDH
in Southwest California Indians.”
Alcohol Research & Health
30, no. 1 (2007): 14–17.

Ehlers, C. L. et al. “Linkage Analyses of Stimulant Dependence, Craving and Heavy Use in American Indians.”
American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B Neuropsychiatric Genetics
156B, no. 7 (2011): 772–80.

Elias, S. A. “Late Pleistocene Climates of Beringia, Based on Analysis of Fossil Beetles.”
Quaternary Research
53, no. 2 (2000): 229–35.

Fairbanks, D. J.
Evolving: The Human Effect and Why It Matters
. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2012.

Fairbanks, D. J. et al. “
NANOGP8
: Evolution of a Human-Specific Retro-Oncogene.”
G3: Genes Genomes Genetics
2, no. 11 (2012): 1447–57.

Fairbanks, D. J., and P. J. Maughan. “Evolution of the
NANOG
Pseudogene Family in the Human and Chimpanzee Genomes.”
BMC Evolutionary Biology
6 (2006): 12.

Faruque, A. S. G. et al. “The Relationship between ABO Blood Groups and Susceptibility to Diarrhea due to
Vibrio cholerae
0139.”
Clinical Infectious Disease
18, no. 5 (1994): 827–28.

Flynn, J. R.
What Is Intelligence? Beyond the Flynn Effect
. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.

Fry, A. E. et al. “Common Variation in the ABO Glycosyltransferase Is Associated with Susceptibility to Severe
Plasmodium falciparum
Malaria.”
Human Molecular Genetics
17, no. 4 (2008): 567–76.

Fu, W. et al. “Analysis of 6,515 Exomes Reveals the Recent Origin of Most Human Protein-Coding Variants.”
Nature
493, no. 7431 (2013): 216–20.

Gallup. “Evolution, Creationism, Intelligent Design.”
http://www.gallup.com/poll/21814/evolution-creationism-intelligent-design.aspx
(accessed June 22, 2014).

Giardina, E. et al. “Haplotypes in
SLC24A5
Gene as Ancestry Informative Markers in Different Populations.”
Current Genomics
9, no. 2 (2008): 110–14.

Glass, R. I. et al. “Predisposition for Cholera of Individuals with O Blood Group: Possible Evolutionary Significance.”
American Journal of Epidemiology
121, no. 6 (1985): 791–96.

Goldenberg, D. M.
The Curse of Ham: Race and Slavery in Early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003.

Goldsmith, J. C. et al. “Framing the Research Agenda for Sickle Cell Trait: Building on the Current Understanding of Clinical Events and Their Potential Implications.”
American Journal of Hematology
87, no. 3 (2012): 340–46.

Gottfredson, L. S. “Mainstream Science on Intelligence: An Editorial with 52 Signatories, History, and Bibliography.”
Intelligence
24, no. 1 (1997): 13–23.

———. “What If the Hereditarian Hypothesis Is True?”
Psychology, Public Policy, and Law
11, no. 2 (2005): 311–19.

Gould, S. J.
The Mismeasure of Man
. New York: W. W. Norton, 1981.

———.
The Mismeasure of Man.
Rev. ed. New York: W. W. Norton, 1996.

Graham, G. S., and S. H. McCarty. “Sickle Cell (Meniscocytic) Anemia.”
Southern Medical Journal
23 (1930): 598–606.

Green, R.E. et al. “A Draft Sequence of the Neandertal Genome.”
Science
328, no. 7929 (2010): 710–22.

Haitina, T. et al. “High Diversity in Functional Properties of Melanocortin 1 Receptor (
MC1R
) in Divergent Primate Species Is More Strongly Associated with Phylogeny than Coat Color.”
Molecular Biology and Evolution
24, no. 9 (2007): 2001–2008.

Hammer, M. F. et al. “Population Structure of Y Chromosome SNP Haplogroups in the United States and Forensic Implications for Constructing Y Chromosome STR Databases.”
Forensic Science International
164, no. 1 (2006): 45-55.

Head, T. “Interracial Marriage Laws: A Short Timeline History.”
http://civilliberty.about.com/od/raceequalopportunity/tp/Interracial-Marriage-Laws-History-Timeline.htm
(accessed May 14, 2013).

Healy, E. et al. “Functional Variation of
MC1R
Alleles from Red-Haired Individuals.”
Human Molecular Genetics
10, no. 21 (2001): 2397–402.

Hedges, C., and J. Sacco.
Days of Destruction, Days of Revolt.
New York: Nation Books, 2012.

Hellenthal, G. et al. “A Genetic Atlas of Human Admixture History.”
Science
343, no. 6172 (2014): 747–51.

Henn, B. M. et al. “Genomic Ancestry of North Africans Supports Back-to-Africa Migrations.”
PLoS Genetics
8, no. 1 (2012): e1002397.

Herrnstein, R. J., and C. Murray.
The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life.
New York: Free Press, 1996.

Hodges, L. “The Bell Curve Is Sending Shock Waves through America.”
Times Higher Education
, November 14, 1994.
http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=154396§ioncode=26
(accessed February 1, 2013).

Ingman, M. et al. “Mitochondrial Genome Variation and the Origin of Modern Humans.”
Nature
408, no. 6828 (2000): 708–13.

Jablonski, N. G., and G. Chaplin, “Human Skin Pigmentation as an Adaptation to UV Radiation.”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA
107, suppl. 2 (2010): 8962–68.

James, A. “Making Sense of Race and Racial Classification.” In
White Logic, White Methods: Racism and Methodology
, edited by T. Zuberi et al., 31–45. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2008.

Jarvis, J. P. et al. “Patterns of Ancestry, Signatures of Natural Selection, and Genetic Association with Stature in Western African Pygmies.”
PLoS Genetics
8, no. 4 (2012): e1002641.

Jensen, A. R. “How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement?”
Harvard Educational Review
39, no. 2 (1969): 165–96.

Jewish Virtual Library. “The Lebensborn Program (1935–1945).”
http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/Lebensborn.html
(accessed July 16, 2012).

Johnson, C. N., and B. W. Brook. “Reconstructing the Dynamics of Ancient Human Populations from Radiocarbon Dates: 10,000 Years of Population Growth in Australia.”
Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series B
278 (2011): 3748–54.

Jolie, A. “My Medical Choice.”
New York Times
, May 14, 2013.
http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/14/opinion/my-medical-choice.html?_r=0
(accessed January 5, 2014).