Everyone Is African (21 page)

P
REFACE

1
. R. J. Sternberg, “Intelligence,”
Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience
14, no. 1 (2012): 19–27.

2
. British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), “Episode 3: A Savage Legacy,”
Racism: A History
, 58:47,
http://topdocumentaryfilms.com/racism-history
(accessed June 25, 2014), 58:02.

3
. Ibid., 55:40.

4
. A. James, “Making Sense of Race and Racial Classification,” in
White Logic, White Methods: Racism and Methodology
, ed. T. Zuberi et al. (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2008), p. 32.

5
. BBC,
Racism: A History
,
http://topdocumentaryfilms.com/racism-history
(accessed June 25, 2014); Public Broadcasting System,
Race: The Power of an Illusion
,
http://www.pbs.org/race
(accessed June 25, 2014).

C
HAPTER
1: W
HAT
I
S
R
ACE
?

1
. As quoted by E. Warren, “
Loving v. Virginia
: Opinion of the Court,” No. 395, 206 Va. 924, 147 S.E.2d 78, reversed,
http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0388_0001_ZO.html
(accessed July 15, 2014).

2
. Ibid.

3
. Ibid.

4
. T. Head, “Interracial Marriage Laws: A Short Timeline History,”
http://civilliberty.about.com/od/raceequalopportunity/tp/Interracial-Marriage-Laws-History-Timeline.htm
(accessed May 14, 2013).

5
. South Africa Parliament,
Report of the Joint Committee on the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act and Section 16 of the Immorality Act
(Cape Town, South Africa: Government Printer, 1985).

6
. C. R. Darwin,
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life
, 4th ed. (London: John Murray, 1866), p. 16.

7
. C. R. Darwin,
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life
, 5th ed. (London: John Murray, 1869), p. 243.

8
. American Kennel Club, “Breed Matters,”
https://www.akc.org/breeds
(accessed May 3, 2014).

9
. C. R. Darwin,
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life
, 1st ed. (London: John Murray, 1859), p. 298.

10
. R. C. Punnett,
Mendelism
(New York: Macmillan, 1905), p. 184.

11
. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, “Holocaust Encyclopedia,”
http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005143
(accessed July 16, 2012).

12
. Jewish Virtual Library, “The Nazi Party: The ‘Lebensborn' Program,”
http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/Lebensborn.html
(accessed July 16, 2012).

13
. A. M. Stern,
Eugenic Nation: Faults and Frontiers of Better Breeding in Modern America
(Oakland, CA: University of California Press, 2005), p. 244.

14
. G. Hellenthal et al., “A Genetic Atlas of Human Admixture History,”
Science
343, no. 6172 (2014): 747–51.

15
. R. C. Lewontin, “The Apportionment of Human Diversity,”
Evolutionary Biology
6 (1972): 385.

16
. Ibid., p. 382.

17
. J. P. Jarvis et al., “Patterns of Ancestry, Signatures of Natural Selection, and Genetic Association with Stature in Western African Pygmies,”
PLoS Genetics
8, no. 4 (2012): e1002641.

18
. Ibid.

19
. S. E. Lederer,
Flesh and Blood: Organ Transplantation and Blood Transfusion in 20th Century America
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008).

20
. A. W. F. Edwards, “Human Genetic Diversity: Lewontin's Fallacy,”
BioEssays
25, no. 8 (2003): 800.

21
. Ibid., p. 801.

22
. L. B. Jorde and S. P. Wooding, “Genetic Variation, Classification, and ‘Race,'”
Nature Genetics
36 (2004): S28.

23
. Ibid., p. S30.

C
HAPTER
2: A
FRICAN
O
RIGINS

1
. The evidence of this ancient population is human skeletal remains, including nearly intact skulls bearing the features of modern humans, in the Qafzeh and Skhul caves. See C. B. Stringer et al., “ESR Dates for the Hominid Burial Site of Es Skhul in Israel,”
Nature
338 (1989): 756–58.

2
. D. J. Fairbanks,
Evolving: The Human Effect and Why It Matters
(Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2012).

3
. Ibid.

4
. R. E. Green et al., “A Draft Sequence of the Neanderthal Genome,”
Science
328, no. 7929 (2010): 710–22.

5
. J. Zhang et al., “Genomewide Distribution of High-Frequency, Completely Mismatching SNP Haplotype Pairs Observed to Be Common across Human Populations,”
American Journal of Human Genetics
73, no. 5 (2003): 1073–81.

6
. L. B. Jorde and S. P. Wooding, “Genetic Variation, Classification, and Race,”
Nature Genetics
36 (2004): S28–S33.

7
. There is one documented instance of paternal inheritance of mitochondrial DNA in humans, and it is due to a genetic disorder. The man who inherited this DNA had the paternal mitochondrial DNA only in his muscles. The mitochondrial DNA in the rest of his body was maternal, so this single documented instance of paternal transmission of mitochondrial DNA has no effect on pure maternal inheritance throughout generations. The research was published by M. Schwartz and D. Vissing, “Paternal Inheritance of Mitochondrial DNA,”
New England Journal of Medicine
347, no. 8 (2002): 576–80.

8
. M. Ingman et al., “Mitochondrial Genome Variation and the Origin of Modern Humans,”
Nature
408, no. 6828 (2000): 708–13; N. van Oven and M. Kayser, “Updated Comprehensive Phylogenetic Tree of Global Human Mitochondrial DNA Variation,”
Human Mutation
30, no. 2 (2009): E386–94; P. Soares et al., “Correcting for Purifying Selection: An Improved Human Mitochondrial Molecular Clock,”
American Journal of Human Genetics
84, no. 6 (2009): 740–59.

9
. U. A. Perego et al., “Distinctive Paleo-Indian Migration Routes from Beringia Marked by Two Rare mtDNA Haplogroups,”
Current Biology
13, no. 1 (2009): 1–8.

10
. S. A. Elias, “Late Pleistocene Climates of Beringia, Based on Analysis of Fossil Beetles,”
Quaternary Research
53, no. 2 (2000): 229–35.

11
. B. Malyarchuk et al., “The Peopling of Europe from the Mitochondrial Haplogroup U5 Perspective,”
PLoS ONE
5, no. 4 (2010): e10285.

12
. D. M. Behar et al., “A ‘Copernican' Reassessment of the Human Mitochondrial DNA Tree from Its Root,”
American Journal of Human Genetics
90, no. 4 (2012): 675–84.

13
. Soares et al., “Correcting for Purifying Selection.”

14
. In reality, a very small part on one end of the Y chromosome recombines with the X chromosome. However, all genetic analysis for ancestry is done with the nonrecombining portion, which represents the vast majority of the Y chromosome.

15
. F. Cruciani et al., “A Revised Root for the Human Y Chromosomal Phylogenetic Tree: The Origin of Patrilineal Diversity in Africa,”
American Journal of Human Genetics
88, no. 6 (2011): 814–18.

16
. W. Fu et al., “Analysis of 6,515 Exomes Reveals the Recent Origin of Most Human Protein-Coding Variants,”
Nature
493, no. 7431 (2013): 216–20.

17
. Jorde and Wooding, “Genetic Variation, Classification, and Race,” p. S29.

C
HAPTER
3: A
NCESTRY VERSUS
R
ACE

1
. For an excellent summary of the Jefferson-Hemings history and research, see the PBS
Frontline
episode “Mapping Jefferson's Y Chromosome” at
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/jefferson/etc/genemap.html
(accessed November 11, 2012). For more detailed information, and the results of original research, see F. L. Mendez et al., “Increased Resolution of Y Chromosome Haplogroup T Defines Relationships among Populations of the Near East, Europe, and Africa,”
Human Biology
83, no. 1 (2011): 39–53; Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation,
Report of the Research Committee on Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings
,
http://www.monticello.org/sites/default/files/inline-pdfs/jefferson-hemings_report.pdf
(accessed November 11, 2012); National Public Radio, “Thomas Jefferson Descendants Work to Heal Family's Past,”
http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=131243217
(accessed November 11, 2012); A. G. Reed,
The Hemingses of Monticello: An American Family
(New York: W. W. Norton, 2009).

2
. D. M. Goldenberg,
The Curse of Ham: Race and Slavery in Early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003).

3
. Ibid.

4
. S. J. Gould,
The Mismeasure of Man
, rev. ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1996), p. 404.

5
. United States Census Bureau, “Race,”
http://www.census.gov/topics/population/race.html
(accessed June 25, 2014).

6
. M. F. Hammer et al., “Population Structure of Y Chromosome SNP Haplogroups in the United States and Forensic Implications for Constructing Y Chromosome STR Databases,”
Forensic Science International
164, no. 1 (2006): 45–55.

7
. D. J. Fairbanks et al., “
NANOGP8
: Evolution of a Human-Specific Retro-Oncogene,”
G3: Genes Genomes Genetics
2, no. 11 (2012): 1447–57; D. J. Fairbanks and P. J. Maughan, “Evolution of the
NANOG
Pseudogene Family in the Human and Chimpanzee Genomes,”
BMC Evolutionary Biology
6 (2006): 12.

8
. I. Chambers et al., “Functional Expression Cloning of
Nanog
, a Pluripotency Sustaining Factor in Embryonic Stem Cells,”
Cell
113, no. 5 (2003): 643–55.

9
. L. Ségurel et al., “The ABO Blood Group Is a Trans-Species Polymorphism in Primates,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA
109, no. 45 (2012): 18493–98.

10
. J. A. Rowe et al., “Blood Group O Protects against Severe
Plasmodium falciparum
Malaria through the Mechanism of Reduced Rosetting,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA
104, no. 44 (2007): 17471–76; A. E. Fry et al., “Common Variation in the ABO Glycosyltransferase Is Associated with Susceptibility to Severe
Plasmodium falciparum
Malaria,”
Human Molecular Genetics
17, no. 4 (2008): 567–76.

11
. R. I. Glass et al., “Predisposition for Cholera of Individuals with O Blood Group: Possible Evolutionary Significance,”
American Journal of Epidemiology
121, no. 6 (1985): 791–96; J. D. Clemens et al., “ABO Blood Groups and Cholera: New Observations on Specificity of Risk and Modification of Vaccine Efficacy,”
Journal of Infectious Disease
159, no. 4 (1989): 770–73; A. S. G. Faruque et al., “The Relationship between ABO Blood Groups and Susceptibility to Diarrhea due to
Vibrio cholerae
0139,”
Clinical Infectious Disease
18, no. 5 (1994): 827–28.

12
. A. Keinan and A. G. Clark, “Recent Explosive Human Population Growth Has Resulted in an Excess of Rare Genetic Variants,”
Science
336, no. 6082 (2012): 740–43.

13
. Fairbanks et al., “
NANOGP8
,” pp. 1447–57.

14
. J. Xing et al., “Fine-Scaled Human Genetic Structure Revealed by SNP Microarrays,”
Genome Research
19 (2009): 819.

15
. E. Giardina et al., “Haplotypes in
SLC24A5
Gene as Ancestry Informative Markers in Different Populations,”
Current Genomics
9, no. 2 (2008): 110–14.

16
. Race, Ethnicity, and Genetics Working Group, “The Use of Racial, Ethnic, and Ancestral Categories in Human Genetics Research,”
American Journal of Human Genetics
77, no. 4 (2005): 524.

C
HAPTER
4: “T
HE
C
OLOR OF
T
HEIR
S
KIN
”

1
. M. L. King Jr., “I Have a Dream,”
Historic Documents
,
http://www.ushistory.org/documents/i-have-a-dream.htm
(accessed June 29, 2014).

2
. C. R. Darwin,
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life
, 1st ed. (London: John Murray, 1859), p. 406.