Everyone Is African (22 page)

3
. N. G. Jablonski and G. Chaplin, “Human Skin Pigmentation as an Adaptation to UV Radiation,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA
107, suppl. 2 (2010): 8962–68.

4
. G. S. Omenn, “Evolution and Public Health,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA
107, suppl. 1 (2012): 1702–709; S. Sharma et al., “Vitamin D Deficiency and Disease Risk among Aboriginal Arctic Populations,”
Nutritional Review
69, no. 8 (2011): 468–78.

5
. C. R. Wagner, F. R. Greer, and the Section on Breastfeeding and Committee on Nutrition, “Prevention of Rickets and Vitamin D Deficiency in Infants, Children, and Adolescents,”
Pediatrics
122, no. 5 (2008): 1142–52.

6
. T. Haitina et al., “High Diversity in Functional Properties of Melanocortin 1 Receptor (
MC1R
) in Divergent Primate Species Is More Strongly Associated with Phylogeny than Coat Color,”
Molecular Biology and Evolution
24, no. 9 (2007): 2001–8.

7
. P. Sulem et al., “Genetic Determinants of Hair, Eye and Skin Pigmentation in Europeans,”
Nature Genetics
39 (2007): 1443–52; E. Pośpiech et al., “The Common Occurrence of Epistasis in the Determination of Human Pigmentation and Its Impact on DNA-Based Pigmentation Phenotype Prediction,”
Forensic Science International: Genetics
11 (2014): 64–72.

8
. S. Beleza et al., “The Timing of Pigmentation Lightening in Europeans,”
Molecular Biology and Evolution
30, no. 1 (2013): 24–35.

9
. E. Healy et al., “Functional Variation of
MC1R
Alleles from Red-Haired Individuals,”
Human Molecular Genetics
10, no. 21 (2001): 2397–402.

10
. Jablonski and Chaplin, “Human Skin Pigmentation”; K. Makova and H. L. Norton, “Worldwide Polymorphism at the
MC1R
Locus and Normal Pigmentation Variation in Humans,”
Peptides
26, no. 10 (2005): 1901–908.

11
. Jablonski and Chaplin, “Human Skin Pigmentation.”

12
. S. J. Gould,
The Mismeasure of Man
, rev. ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1996), p. 401.

13
. E. Giardina et al., “Haplotypes in
SLC24A5
Gene as Ancestry Informative Markers in Different Populations,”
Current Genomics
9, no. 2 (2008): 110–14.

14
. R. Smith et al., “Melanocortin 1 Receptor Variants in an Irish Population,”
Journal of Investigative Dermatology
111, no. 1 (1998): 119–22.

15
. C. Lalueza-Fox et al., “A Melanocortin 1 Receptor Allele Suggests Varying Pigmentation among Neanderthals,”
Science
318, no. 5855 (2007): 1453–55.

16
. C. C. Cequeira et al., “Predicting
Homo
Pigmentation Phenotype through Genomic Data: From Neanderthal to James Watson,”
American Journal of Human Biology
24, no. 5 (2012): 705–709.

17
. Jablonsky and Chaplin, “Human Skin Pigmentation,” p. 8966.

18
. H. L. Norton et al., “Genetic Evidence for the Convergent Evolution of Light Skin in Europeans and East Asians,”
Molecular Biology and Evolution
24, no. 3 (2007): 710–22.

C
HAPTER
5: H
UMAN
D
IVERSITY AND
H
EALTH

1
. A. C. Allison, “Protection Afforded by Sickle-Cell Trait against Subtertian Malarial Infection,”
British Medical Journal
1, no. 4857 (1954): 290–94.

2
. S. M. Rich et al., “The Origin of Malignant Malaria,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA
106, no. 35 (2009): 14902–907.

3
. M. Currat et al., “Molecular Analysis of the Beta-Globin Gene Cluster in the Niokholo Mandenka Population Reveals a Recent Origin of the Beta-S Senegal Mutation,”
American Journal of Human Genetics
70, no. 1 (2002): 207–23.

4
. A. E. Kulozik et al., “Geographical Survey of Beta-S-Globin Gene Haplotypes: Evidence for an Independent Asian Origin of the Sickle-Cell Mutation,”
American Journal of Human Genetics
39, no. 2 (1986): 239–44; F. Y. Zeng et al., “Sequence of the –530 Region of the Beta-Globin Gene of Sickle Cell Anemia Patients with the Arabian Haplotype,”
Human Mutation
3, no. 2 (1994): 163–65.

5
. American Society of Hematology, “Statement on Screening for Sickle Cell Trait and Athletic Participation,”
http://www.hematology.org/Advocacy/Statements/2650.aspx
(accessed June 25, 2014).

6
. Ibid.

7
. Sickle Cell Disease Association of America, “Sickle Cell Trait and Athletics,”
http://www.sicklecelldisease.org/index.cfm?page=sickle-cell-trait-athletics
(accessed December 30, 2012).

8
. J. C. Goldsmith et al., “Framing the Research Agenda for Sickle Cell Trait: Building on the Current Understanding of Clinical Events and their Potential Implications,”
American Journal of Hematology
87, no. 3 (2012): 340–46.

9
. N. L. Kaplan et al., “Age of the
∆F508
Cystic Fibrosis Mutation,”
Nature Genetics
8 (1994): 216–18; N. Morral et al., “The Origin of the Major Cystic Fibrosis Mutation (
∆F508
) in European Populations,”
Nature Genetics
7, no. 2 (1994): 169–75; E. Mateu et al., “Can a Place of Origin of the Main Cystic Fibrosis Mutations Be Identified?”
American Journal of Human Genetics
70, no. 1 (2002): 257–64.

10
. The data cited here are from the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), “U. S. Cancer Statistics: An Interactive Atlas,”
http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/DCPC_INCA/DCPC_INCA.aspx
(accessed January 12, 2013).

11
. CDC, “Adult Cigarette Smoking in the United States: Current Estimates,”
http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/adult_data/cig_smoking/#state
(accessed January 12, 2013).

12
. C. Lu, “What Causes “Asian Glow?”
Yale Scientific
, April 3, 2011,
http://www.yalescientific.org/2011/04/what-causes-”asian-glow”
(accessed January 5, 2013).

13
. Y. Matsuo, R. Yokoyama, and S. Yokoyama, “The Genes for Human Alcohol Dehydrogenases Beta-1 and Beta-2 Differ by Only One Nucleotide,”
European Journal of Biochemistry
183, no. 2 (1989): 317–20.

14
. H. Li et al., “Ethnic Related Selection for an ADH Class I Variant within East Asia,”
PLoS One
3, no. 4 (2008): 2.

15
. Ibid.

16
. J. Liu et al., “Haplotype-Based Study of the Association of Alcohol Metabolizing Genes with Alcohol Dependence in Four Independent Populations,”
Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research
35, no. 2 (2011): 304–16.

17
. C. Hedges and J. Sacco,
Days of Destruction, Days of Revolt
(New York: Nation Books, 2012), pp. 2–3.

18
. C. L. Ehlers, “Variations in ADH and ALDH in Southwest California Indians,”
Alcohol Research & Health
30, no. 1 (2007): 14–17.

19
. C. L. Ehlers et al., “Linkage Analyses of Stimulant Dependence, Craving and Heavy Use in American Indians,”
American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B Neuropsychiatric Genetics
156B, no. 7 (2011): 772–80.

20
. T. Nakajima et al., “Natural Selection and Population History in the Human Angiotensinogen Gene (
AGT
): 736 Complete
AGT
Sequences in Chromosomes from around the World,”
American Journal of Human Genetics
74, no. 5 (2004): 898–916.

21
. T. L. Savittand and M. F. Goldberg, “Herrick's 1910 Case Report of Sickle Cell Anemia. The Rest of the Story,”
Journal of the American Medical Association
261, no. 2 (1989): 266–71.

22
. L. Pauling et al., “Sickle Cell Anemia: A Molecular Disease,”
Science
110 (1949): 543–48.

23
. G. S. Graham and S. H. McCarty, “Sickle Cell (Meniscocytic) Anemia,”
Southern Medical Journal
23 (1930): 600, quoted in M. Tapper,
In the Blood: Sickle Cell Anemia and the Politics of Race
(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), p. 38.

24
. M. F. Hammer et al., “Population Structure of Y Chromosome SNP Haplogroups in the United States and Forensic Implications for Constructing Y Chromosome STR Databases,”
Forensic Science International
164, no. 1 (2006): 45–55.

25
. National Humanities Center Resource Toolbox, “On Slaveholders' Sexual Abuse of Slaves: Selections from 19th & 20th Century Slave Narratives,”
The Making of African American Identity, Vol. I, 1500–1865
,
http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/pds/maai/enslavement/text6/masterslavesexualabuse.pdf
(accessed January 15, 2013).

26
. A. B. Raper, “Sickle Cell Disease in Africa and America: A Comparison,”
Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
53 (1950): 53, quoted in Tapper,
In the Blood
, p. 41.

27
. R. B. Scott, “Health Care Priorities and Sickle Cell Anemia,”
Journal of the American Medical Association
214, no. 4 (1970): 731, quoted in Tapper,
In the Blood
, p. 102.

28
. Tapper,
In the Blood
, p. 104.

29
. Pauling et al., “Sickle Cell Anemia.”

30
. R. B. Scott, “Health Care Priorities and Sickle Cell Anemia,” p. 734, quoted in Tapper,
In the Blood
, pp. 105–106.

31
. R. B. Scott, “Reflections on the Current Status of the National Sickle Cell Disease Program in the United States,”
Journal of the National Medical Association
71, no. 7 (1979): 679–81.

32
. S. A. Tishkoff et al., “Convergent Adaptation of Human Lactase Persistence in Africa and Europe,”
Nature Genetics
39 (2007): 31–40.

33
. S. H. Witt, “Pressure Points in Growing up Indian,”
Perspectives
12, no. 1 (1980): 24–31.

34
. Ibid.

35
. M. S. Watson et al., eds., “Newborn Screening: Toward a Uniform Screening Panel and System,”
Genetics in Medicine
8, suppl. 1 (2006): 1s–252s.

36
. B. M. Rusert and C. D. M. Royal, “Grassroots Marketing in a Global Era: More Lessons from BiDil,”
Journal of Law and Medical Ethics
39, no. 1 (2011): 79–90.

37
. Ibid.

38
. P. C. Ng et al., “Individual Genomes Instead of Race for Personalized Medicine,”
Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics
84 (2008): 306.

39
. H. Brody and L. M. Hunt, “BiDil: Assessing a Race-Based Pharmaceutical,”
Annals of Family Medicine
4, no. 6 (2006): 558.

40
. Ibid., p. 559.

41
. L. K. Williams et al., “Differing Effects of Metformin on Glycemic Control by Race-Ethnicity,”
Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism
(early release, in press, 2014),
http://press.endocrine.org/doi/abs/10.1210/jc.2014-1539
(accessed June 25, 2014).

42
. A. Wojcicki, “23andMe Provides an Update Regarding FDA's Review,”
23andMe Blog
, December 5, 2013,
http://blog.23andme.com/news/23andme-provides-an-update-regarding-fdas-review
(accessed January 5, 2013).

43
. A. Jolie, “My Medical Choice,”
New York Times
, May 14, 2013,
http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/14/opinion/my-medical-choice.html?_r=0
(accessed January 5, 2014).

44
. P. R. Billings et al., “Discrimination as a Consequence of Genetic Testing,”
American Journal of Human Genetics
50, no. 3 (1992): 476–82.

45
. Coalition for Genetic Fairness, “The History of GINA,”
http://www.geneticalliance.org/ginaresource.history
(accessed January 27, 2013).

C
HAPTER
6: H
UMAN
D
IVERSITY AND
I
NTELLIGENCE

1
. S. J. Gould,
The Mismeasure of Man
(New York: W. W. Norton, 1981).

2
. S. J. Gould,
The Mismeasure of Man
, rev. ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1996).

3
. R. J. Herrnstein and C. Murray,
The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life
(New York: Free Press, 1996).

4
. Gould,
Mismeasure of Man
, rev. ed., p. 368.

5
. C. F. Chabris, “IQ Since ‘The Bell Curve,'”
Commentary
106 (1998): 33–40,
http://www.wjh.harvard.edu/~cfc/Chabris1998a.html
(accessed February 5, 2013).

6
. A. R. Jensen, “How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement?”
Harvard Educational Review
39, no. 2 (1969): 1–123.

7
. J. P. Rushton and A. R. Jensen, “Thirty Years of Research on Race Differences in Cognitive Ability,”
Psychology, Public Policy, and Law
11, no. 2 (2005): 235.

8
. Gould,
Mismeasure of Man
, rev. ed., p. 369.

9
. Ibid.

10
. As quoted in a promotional statement on the first page of Herrnstein and Murray,
Bell Curve
.

11
. L. Hodges, “The Bell Curve Is Sending Shock Waves through America,”
http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=154396§ioncode=26
(accessed February 1, 2013).

12
. Gould,
Mismeasure of Man
, rev. ed., pp. 376–77.

13
. L. S. Gottfredson, “Mainstream Science on Intelligence: An Editorial with 52 Signatories, History, and Bibliography,”
Intelligence
24, no. 1 (1997): 13–23.