Dark Continent: Europe's Twentieth Century (73 page)

31.
R. Redfield, “The ethnological problem,” in G. de Huszar (ed.),
New Perspectives on Peace
(Chicago, 1944), pp. 80–82

32.
R. Lemkin,
Axis Rule in Occupied Europe
(Washington, DC, 1944), p. xiv; W. Friedman, “The disintegration of European civilisation and the future of international law,”
Modern Law Review
(December 1938), pp. 194–214; J. Herz, “The National Socialist doctrine of international law,”
Political Science Quarterly
(December 1939), pp. 536–54

33.
The World’s Destiny and the United States
, op. cit., pp. 102–5

34.
ibid., p. 113; Lauterpacht, op. cit., p. vi; H. Kelsen,
Peace through Law
(Chapel Hill, NC, 1944), esp. pp. 41–2

35.
W. Lipgens, “European federation in the political thought of resistance movements,”
Central European History
, 1 (1968), p. 10; W. I. Jennings,
A Federation for Western Europe
(New York/Cambridge, 1940), p. 10

36.
“Statement of Aims” cited in W. Lipgens,
A History of European Integration
, vol. 1:
1945–1947
(Oxford, 1982), p. 143; MacKay, op. cit., p. 23; see the special issue, “Anglo-French Union?” in
The New Commonwealth Quarterly
, v: 4 (April 1940)

37.
G. T. Renner, “Maps for a new world,”
Collier’s
(6 June 1942), pp. 14–15; frontispiece; for an important survey of earlier moves towards federalism, see R. Schlesinger,
Federalism in Central and Eastern Europe
(New York, 1945)

38.
Representative of the time is A. Kolnai, “Danubia: a survey of plans of solution,”
Journal of Central European Affairs
(January 1944), pp. 441–62

39.
H. Notter,
Postwar Foreign Policy Preparation, 1939–1945
(Westport, Conn., 1975), pp. 458–60

40.
Pavone, op. cit., pp. 305–6; Lipgens,
Documents
, op. ct., pp. 319, 339

41.
ibid., p. 563; Lipgens, “European federation …,” op. cit., p. 12

42.
F. A. von Hayek,
The Road to Serfdom
(Chicago, 1944), pp. 4, 67, 84

43.
K. Mannheim,
Man and Society in an Age of Reconstruction
(London, 1950 edn), pp. 6, 380

44.
Carr, op. cit., pp. 256–61

45.
Hayek, op. cit., p. 203

46.
ibid., p. 231; see also, F. A. von Hayek, “Economic conditions of inter-state federalism,”
The New Commonwealth Quarterly
, v: 2 (September 1939), pp. 131–50

47.
L. von Mises,
Omnipotent Government: The Rise of the Total State and Total War
(New Haven, Conn., 1944), p. 286

48.
C. Becker,
How New Will the Better World Be?
(New York, 1944), pp. v, 243

49.
The Journey Home
, op. cit., pp. 43–52

50.
Pavone, op. cit., p. 570

51.
M. Higonnet (ed.),
Behind the Lines: Gender and the Two World Wars
(New Haven, Conn., 1987)

52.
Cf. B. Jancar-Webster,
Women and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945
(Denver, Colo., 1990), p. 163;
The Journey Home
, op. cit., pp. 55–6

53.
I. Szabo, “Historical foundations of human rights and subsequent developments,” in K. Vasak (ed.)
The International Dimensions of Human Rights
, i (Paris, 1982), pp. 11–42; H. Lauterpacht,
International Law and Human Rights
(New York,
1950), p. 353; H. Lauterpacht,
Report: Human Rights, the Charter of the United Nations and the International Bill of the Rights of Man
(Brussels, 1948), p. 22

54.
N. Robinson,
The Genocide Convention: A Commentary
(New York, 1960), p. 52; see also H. Kelsen, “Collective and individual responsibility in international law with particular regard to the punishment of war criminals,”
California Law Review
, XXXI (December 1943), pp. 530–71; H. Lauterpacht, “The subjects of the Law of Nations,”
Law Quarterly Review
, LXIII (October 1947), pp. 438–60; LXIV (January 1948), pp. 97–116

7: A B
RUTAL
P
EACE
, 1943–9

1.
In his
Memoirs of a Revolutionist: Essays in Political Criticism
(New York, 1957), p. 119

2.
On the war as a civil war, see Pavone, op. cit., and A. J. Mayer,
Why Did the Heavens Not Darken?
(London, 1990)

3.
Kulischer, op. cit., pp. 274–81; P. R. Magosci,
Historical Atlas of East Central Europe
(Seattle, 1993), p. 164; R. Overy (ed.),
The Times Atlas of the Twentieth Century
(London, 1996)

4.
See J. T. Gross, “Social consequences of war: preliminaries to the study of imposition of communist regimes in east central Europe,”
East European Politics and Society
, 3: 2 (spring 1989), pp. 198–214

5.
M. Djilas,
Conversations with Stalin
(New York, 1962), p. 114; on “Red Fascism,” see L. Adler and T. Paterson, “Red Fascism: the merger of Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia in the American image of totalitarianism, 1930s to 1950s,”
American Historical Review
, 75 (1970), pp. 1046–64

6.
Magosci, op. cit., cf. J. Vernant,
The Refugee in the Post-War World
(London, 1953), p. 30; M.J. Proudfoot,
European Refugees, 1939–1952: A Study in Forced Population Movement
(London, 1957), p. 34

7.
On German POWs, see G. Bischof and S. E. Ambrose (eds.),
Eisenhower and the German POWs: Facts against Falsehood
(Baton Rouge, La/London, 1992); E. Skrjabina,
The Allies on the Rhine, 1945–1950
(Carbondale, Ill., 1980), p. 29

8.
Vernant, op. cit.

9.
Vernant, op. cit., pp. 60–63; Proudfoot, op. cit., p. 361; A. Königseder and J. Wetzel,
Lebensmut im Wartesaal: Die jüdischen DPs im Nachkriegsdeutschland
(Frankfurt am Main, 1994)

10.
Skrjabina, op. cit., p. 109; W. Benz (ed.),
Die Vertriebung der Deutschen aus dem Osten
(Frankfurt am Main, 1995)

11.
Danzig report cited in C. Tighe,
Gdansk: National Identity in the Polish-German Borderlands
(London, 1990), p. 197; T. Schieder (ed.),
The Expulsion of the German Population from the Territories East of the Oder-Neisse Line
(Bonn, n.d.), p. 269

12.
A. M. de Zayas,
Nemesis at Potsdam: The Expulsion of the Germans from the East
(Lincoln, Nebr./London, 1988 edn), pp. 104–6; J. B. Schechtman,
Postwar Population Transfers in Europe, 1945–1955
(Philadelphia, Pa, 1962), pp. 56–67; Gomulka cited in N. Naimark,
The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949
(Cambridge, Mass., Harvard, 1995), p. 147

13.
Schechtman, op. cit., p. 363

14.
Kirk, op. cit., p. 69, n. 24 for civil and military casualties; Proudfoot, op. cit., p. 34 for forced movements of civilians during the war. Total population estimates from B. R. Mitchell,
European Historical Statistics, 1750–1975
(New York, 1980 edn); on western Poland, J. Ziolkowski, “The sociological aspects of demographic changes in Polish Western Territories,”
Polish Western Affairs
, 3: 1 (1962), pp. 3–37; quote from J. Wiatr, “Polish society,” cited in C. M. Hann,
A Village without Solidarity: Polish Peasants in Years of Crisis
(New Haven, Conn./London, 1985), p. 157

15.
T. Schieder (ed.),
Documents on the Expulsion of the Germans from Eastern-Central Europe
(Bonn, 1961), pp. 146–7, 152

16.
A. Scholz,
Silesia: Yesterday and Today
(The Hague, 1964), p. 69

17.
Hann, op. cit., p. 179; Scholz, op. cit., p. 50

18.
See Gross, op cit.,
passim

19.
D. Sington,
Belsen Uncovered
(London, 1946), p. 187

20.
D. Macardle,
Children of Europe
(Boston, Mass., 1951), pp. 58, 107, 154, 200, 231

21.
Macardle, op. cit., pp. 231–5, 294–6

22.
Macardle, op. cit., p. 64

23.
ibid., p. 242

24.
A. Mando Dalianis-Karambatzakis,
Children in Turmoil during the Greek Civil War 1946–49: Today’s Adults
(Stockholm, 1994); cf. A. Karpf,
The War After
(London, 1996), and A. Hass,
Aftermath: Living with the Holocaust
(New York, 1995)

25.
Z. Zaluski,
Final 1945
(Warsaw, 1968), p. 17, cited in P. Wandycz,
The Price of Freedom: A History of East Central Europe from the Middle Ages to the Present
(London, 1992), p. 240; J. R. Fiszman,
Revolution and Tradition in People’s Poland: Education and Socialization
(Princeton, NJ, 1972), p. 25

26.
F. Neumann, “Re-educating the Germans: the dilemma of reconstruction,”
Commentary
(June 1947), pp. 517–25; post-war Cioran cited in S. Guilbaut, “Postwar painting games: the rough and the slick,” in Guilbaut (ed.),
Reconstructing Modernism: Art in New York, Paris and Montreal, 1945–1964
(Cambridge, Mass., 1990), p. 53; pre-war Cioran in L. Volovici,
Nationalist Ideology and Antisemitism: The Case of Romanian Intellectuals in the 1930s
(Oxford, 1991), pp. 78–9

27.
V. St Erlich,
Family in Transition: A Study of 300 Yugoslav Villages
(Princeton, NJ, 1966), pp. 452–3; D. Pines, “Working with women survivors of the Holocaust,”
Journal of Psychoanalysis
(1986), pp. 67, 295–307

28.
G. Theotokas,
Tetradia imerologiou
(Athens, n.d.), p. 486

29.
G. Warner, “Italy and the Powers, 1943–49” in S. J. Woolf (ed.),
The Rebirth of Italy, 1943–50
(New York, 1972), p. 30

30.
D. Ellwood,
Italy, 1943–1945
(New York, 1985), pp. 22–30

31.
L. Kettenacker, “The Anglo-Soviet alliance and the problem of Germany, 1941–1945,”
Journal of Contemporary History
, 17 (1982), pp. 435–58 (cited on p. 449)

32.
V. Zubok and C. Pleshakov,
Inside the Kremlin’s Cold War: From Stalin to Khrushchev
(Cambridge, Mass., 1996), pp. 28–30

33.
See the excellent discussion in C. Gati,
Hungary and the Soviet Bloc
(Durham, NC, 1986), pp. 28–33; on Romania, G. Ionescu,
Communism in Rumania, 1944–1962
(London, 1964), p. 90

34.
K. Kersten,
The Establishment of Communist Rule in Poland, 1943–1948
(Berkeley/Los Angeles, Calif., 1991), p. 122

35.
R. Palmer Domenico,
Italian Fascists on Trial, 1943–1948
(Chapel Hill, NC, 1991), pp. 92–4

36.
Cited in M. Dondi, “Azioni di guerra e potere partigiano nel dopoliberazione,”
Italia contemporanea
, 188 (September 1992), pp. 457–77 (citations pp. 465–6)

37.
Dondi, op. cit., p. 467

38.
H. R. Kedward,
In Search of the Maquis: Rural Resistance in Southern France, 1942–1944
(Oxford, 1993), p. 279

39.
H. Lottman,
The People’s Anger: Justice and Revenge in Post-Liberation France
(London, 1986), pp. 50–56

40.
K.-D. Henke and H. Woller (eds.),
Politische Säuberung in Europa: Die Abrechnung mit Faschismus und Kollaboration nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg
(Munich, 1991), pp. 184, 215–39, 272, 292–9

41.
Henke, op. cit., p. 128; J.-P. Rioux,
The Fourth Republic, 1944–1958
(Cambridge, Cambs., 1987) p. 36