Dark Continent: Europe's Twentieth Century (68 page)

1.
J. Roth,
Juden auf Wanderschaft
(Cologne, 1985 edn), p. 84

2.
Figures for the First World War from
Encyclopaedia Britannica
, vol. 23 (Chicago, 1949), p. 775; Masaryk cited in E. Goldstein,
Winning the Peace
, 4; El Lissitsky in M. Rowell and A. Z. Rudenstine (eds.),
Russische Avantgarde aus der Sammlung Costakis
(Hanover, 1984), p. 52

3.
Ignazio Silone (1955) from “The choice of comrades” in N. Mills (ed.),
Legacy of Dissent: Forty Years of Writing from Dissent Magazine
(New York, 1994), p. 58

4.
H. Arendt,
The Origins of Totalitarianism
(New York, 1958), p. ix

5.
J. Keegan, “A primitive tribal conflict only anthropologists can understand,”
Daily Telegraph
, 15 April 1993. See also the same author’s
A History of Warfare
(London, 1993), pp. 6, 55–6

6.
R. Aron,
The Century of Total War
(London, 1954), p. 325

1: T
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D
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ALL

1.
H. Kelsen,
La Démocratie: sa nature, sa valeur
(Paris, 1932), p. viii

2.
F. Nitti,
Bolshevism, Fascism and Democracy
(New York, 1927), p. 15

3.
“Kings in exile,” in A. Wat,
Lucifer Unemployed
(Evanston, Ill., 1990), pp. 17–35

4.
B. de Jouvenel,
Après la défaite
(Paris, 1941), p. 7

5.
James Bryce,
Modern Democracies
, i (New York, 1921), p. 4

6.
F. Cambo,
Les Dictatures
(Paris, 1929), p. 98

7.
V. M. Dean, “The attack on democracy,” in Dean
et al., New Governments in Europe
(New York, 1934), p. 15; M. J. Bonn,
The Crisis of European Democracy
(New Haven, Conn., 1925); Eustace Percy,
Democracy on Trial
(London, 1931); H. G. Wells,
After Democracy: Addresses and Papers on the Present World Situation
(London,
1932); S. de Madariaga,
Anarchy or Hierarchy
(New York, 1937), p. 14; W. E. Rappard,
The Crisis of Democracy
(Chicago, 1938), pp. 2–3

8.
De Jouvenel, op. cit., pp. 7–8, 229

9.
M. W. Graham,
New Governments of Central Europe
(London, 1924), pp. 604ff

10.
B. Mirkine-Guetzevitch,
Les Constitutions de l’Europe nouvelle
(Paris, 1929), 25

11.
A. J. Zurcher,
The Experiment with Democracy
(New York, 1933), p. viii

12.
Mirkine-Guetzevitch, op. cit., pp. 16–21

13.
Ibid., pp. 9, 34–5; B. W. Diffie, “Spain under the Republic,” in V.M. Dean
et al., New Governments in Europe
(New York, 1934), pp. 404–5

14.
Hugo Preuss cited by E. Kennedy, “Introduction,” p. xxi, in her translation of C. Schmitt,
The Crisis of Parliamentary Democracy
(Cambridge, Mass., 1987)

15.
Lvov cited in O. Figes,
A People’s Tragedy: The Russian Revolution, 1891–1924
(London, 1996), p. 355

16.
J. Burbank, “Lenin and the Law,”
Slavic Review
, I (1995), pp. 23–44

17.
On voting, see O. Radkey,
Russia Goes to the Polls
(Ithaca, NY, Cornell, 1990 edn), ch. 2; E. H. Carr,
The Bolshevtk Revolution, 1917–1923
, vol. 1 (London, 1986 edn), pp. 116, 191f; I. Getzler, “Lenin’s conception of revolution as civil war,”
Slavonic and East European Review
, 74: 3 (July 1996), pp. 469–72; Z. Zik (ed.),
Ideas and Forces in Soviet Legal History
(New York, 1992), no. 78

18.
H. Shukman (ed.),
The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of the Russian Revolution
(Oxford, 1988), pp. 192–3; Carr, op. cit., p. 182

19.
G. Serventi,
Ascesa della democrazia europea e prime reazioni storiche
(Rome, 1925), 358; F. Cambo,
Autour du fascisme italien
(Paris, 1925), p. 196; see also F. Lyttelton, “Fascism in Italy: the second wave,” in G. Mosse and W. Laqueur (eds.),
International Fascism, 1920–1945
(New York, 1966), pp. 75–101

20.
B. Mussolini,
Le Fascisme
(Paris, 1933), pp. 19f

21.
G. Gentile,
Che cos’è il fascismo
(Florence, 1925), p. 38

22.
H. Rogger and E. Weber (eds.),
The European Right: A Historical Profile
(Berkeley, Calif., 1966), p. 8

23.
Cambo, op. cit., p. 51; cf. M. Bonn,
Crisis of European Democracy
, p. 80

24.
Kelsen, op. cit., p. 22

25.
S. Neumann,
Die deutschen Parteien: Wesen und Wandel nach dem Kriege
(Berlin, 1932), pp. 110–12; Bonn, op. cit., p. 82; Kelsen, “Die Krise des parlamentarischen Systems,” cited in J. Bendersky,
Carl Schmitt: Theorist for the Reich
(Princeton, NJ, 1983), p. 110 n. 8

26.
E. Giraud,
La Crise de la démocratie et le renforcement du pouvoir exécutif
(Paris, 1938), pp. 73–4, 166

27.
J. Stengers, “Belgium,” in Rogger and Weber, op. cit., pp. 136–7; Giraud, op. cit., p. 35; E. Beneš,
Democracy: Today and Tomorrow:
(London, 1940), p. 215

28.
Cited by Giraud, op. cit., p. 150; on Poland, see J. Holzer, “The political right in Poland, 1918–1939,”
Journal of Contemporary History
, 12 (1977), pp. 395–412

29.
Bendersky, op. cit., pp. 130–31

30.
M. S. Wertheimer, “The Nazi revolution in Germany,” in V. M. Dean
et al., New Governments in Europe: The Trend towards Dictatorship
(New York, 1934), pp. 206–7; Bendersky, op. cit., pp. 132–35, 169

31.
Bonn, op. cit., p. 84

32.
R. Wohl,
The Generation of 1914
(Harvard, 1979); Drieu cited by Weber, “The right: an introduction,” in Rogger and Weber, op. cit., p. 18

33.
Montherlant cited in de Jouvenel, op. cit., pp. 36–7; Eliade and Cioran in L. Volovici,
Nationalist Ideology and Antisemitism: The Case of Romanian Intellectuals in the 1930s
(Oxford, 1991)

34.
Musil in D. Luft,
Robert Musil and the Crisis of European Culture
(Berkeley/Los Angeles, Calif., 1980), p. 279; H. G. Wells, “Liberalism,” in
After Democracy
(London, 1932), p. 24

35.
E. di Nuoscio, “La democrazia dei partiti nel pensiero politico di Guglielmo Ferrero,” in L. Cedroni (ed.),
Guglielmo Ferrero: itinerari del pensiero
(Milan, 1994), p. 670; see also A. Lyttelton, “The ‘crisis of bourgeois society’ and the origins of Fascism,” in R. Bessel (ed.),
Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany: Comparisons and Contrasts
(Cambridge, 1996), pp. 12–23; Keynes, “Am I a Liberal?,” cited in P. Mandler and S. Pedersen (eds.),
After the Victorians: Private Conscience and Public Duty in Modern Britain
(London, 1994), p. 10

36.
D. Sassoon,
One Hundred Years of Socialism: The West European Left in the Twentieth Century
(London, 1996), pp. 36–41; Cited by Kennedy, op. cit., p. xxxviii

37.
de Madariaga, op. cit., R. Paxton, “France: the Church, the Republic and the Fascist temptation,” in R. J. Wolff and J. K. Hoensch (eds.),
Catholics, the State and the European Radical Right, 1919–1945
(New York, 1987), p. 83

38.
F. Morstein Marx,
Government in the Third Retch
(New York, 1937), p. 33; Graham, op. cit., p. 292; Hitler cited in A. Bullock,
Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives
(London, 1991), p. 271

39.
The Times
, 10 August 1936

40.
K. Loewenstein, “Autocracy versus democracy in contemporary Europe,”
American Political Science Review
, 29: 4 (August 1935), pp. 571–93, ibid., 29: 5 (October 1935), pp. 755–84

41.
M. Oakeshott,
The Social and Political Doctrines of Contemporary Europe
(London, 1940), pp. xvii, 4

42.
Oakeshott, op. cit., p. xiii; H. Arthur Steiner,
Government in Fascist Italy
(London, 1938), p. 141; Kennan in M. Weil,
A Pretty Good Club: The Founding Fathers of the US Foreign Service
(New York, 1978), p. 171

43.
F. C. Egerton,
Salazar, Rebuilder of Portugal
(London, 1943), pp. 224–7

44.
For the idea that the NSDAP realized the “basic lessons of democracy,” see the review article of P. Fritzsche, “Did Weimar fail?,”
Journal of Modern History
, 68 (September 1996), pp. 629–56; also Bullock, op. cit., p. 271

45.
J. P. Diggins,
Mussolini and Fascism: The View from America
(Princeton, NJ, 1972), pp. 164–5

46.
T. Gallagher,
Portugal: A Twentieth Century Interpretation
(Manchester, 1983), pp. 64–74

47.
U. Kluge,
Der österreichische Standestaat, 1934–1938
(Vienna, 1984), chs. 1–3; F. Stadler and P. Weibel (eds.),
Vertriebung der Vernunft: The Cultural Exodus from Austria
(Vienna/New York, 1995)

48.
Cited in ibid., p. 15

49.
ibid., p. 86

50.
See P. Diehl-Thiele,
Partei und Staat im Dritten Reich
(Munich, 1971)

51.
K. Loewenstein, “Law in the Third Reich,”
Yale Law Journal
, 45 (1936), p. 811; H. W. Koch,
In the Name of the Volk: Political Justice in Hitler’s Germany
(London, 1989), chs. 3–4

52.
I. Müller,
Hitler’s Justice: the Courts of the Third Reich
(tr. D. Schneider) (Cambridge, Mass., 1991), pp. 6–27

53.
E. Fraenkel,
The Dual State: A Contribution to the Theory of Dictatorship
(New York, 1941), p. 13; Loewenstein, op. cit., p. 803; cited by M. Burleigh and W. Wippermann,
The Racial State
(Cambridge, 1991), p. 177; cf. Dickinson,
Politics of Child Welfare
, p. 218

54.
Fraenkel, op. cit.

55.
Müller, op. cit., pp. 91–2

56.
Fraenkel, op. cit., pp. 52, 94

57.
R. C. van Caenegem,
An Historical Introduction to Western Constitutional Law
(Cambridge, Eng., 1995), p. 284

58.
C. Beradt,
The Third Reich of Dreams: The Nightmares of a Nation, 1933–1939
(Wellingborough, Northants, 1985), p. 21

59.
Fraenkel, op. cit., pp. 43–4, 54, 56, 58

60.
ibid., pp. 40, 48–9

61.
E. Gentile,
The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist Italy
(Harvard, Mass., 1996)

62.
Müller, op. cit., p. 197; M. Broszat, “The concentration camps, 1933–1945,” in H. Krausnick and M. Broszat,
Anatomy of the SS State
(London, 1970)

63.
See Bullock, op. cit., ch. 10

64.
D. Bankier,
The Germans and the Final Solution: Public Opinion under Nazism
(Oxford, 1992), ch. 3

65.
G. L. Weinberg, “Germany’s war for world conquest and the extermination of the Jews,”
Holocaust and Genocide Studies
, 10: 2 (fall 1996), pp. 119–33; M. Knox, “Conquest, foreign and domestic, in Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany,”
Journal of Modern History
, 56 (1984), pp. 1–57; Bankier, op. cit., p. 55

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