Dark Continent: Europe's Twentieth Century (69 page)

1.
Acton cited by C. A. Macartney,
National States and National Minorities
(New York, 1968), p. 17

2.
D. G. Kambouroglou,
Toponymika Paradoxa
(Athens, 1920), p. 5

3.
Von Horvath cited in J. Rupnik,
The Other Europe
(London, 1988), p. 41

4.
Cited in R. R. Wisse,
I. L. Peretz and the Making of Modern Jewish Culture
(Seattle, 1991), p. 96

5.
On the borderlands, see now A. Applebaum,
Between East and West: Across the Borderlands of Europe
(London, 1995); O. Jaszi,
The Dissolution of the Habsburg Monarchy
(Chicago, 1929), p. 3; on Renner, T. Bottomore and P. Goode (eds.),
Austro-Marxism
(Oxford, 1978), p. 31. (By an irony of history, this staunch advocate of a supranational state was to become the first chancellor of the Austrian Republic.)

6.
V. H. Rothwell,
British War Atms and Peace Diplomacy, 1914–1918
(Oxford, 1971), p. 159

7.
ibid., pp. 193f; R. L. Koehl, “A prelude to Hitler’s Greater Germany,”
American Historical Review
, 59: 1 (October 1953), pp. 43–65

8.
P. Stirk (ed.),
Mitteleuropa: History and Prospects
(Edinburgh, 1994), pp. 14–15; Rosenberg cited in G. Stoakes,
Hitler and the Quest for World Dominion: Nazi Ideology and Foreign Policy in the 1920s
(New York, 1986), p. 125

9.
The question is asked by Henryk Szlaiffer in R. L. Rudolph and D. F. Good (eds.),
Nationalism and Empire: The Habsburg Empire and the Soviet Union
(New York, 1992), p. 152

10.
E. Traverso,
The Marxists and the Jewish Question: The History of a Debate (1843–1943)
(New Jersey, 1994), chs. 4–5; J. Frankel,
Prophecy and Politics: Socialism, Nationalism and the Russian Jews, 1862–1917
(Cambridge, 1981), p. 235

11.
Traverso, op. cit., p. 132; J. Jacobs,
On Socialists and “the Jewish Question” after Marx
(New York, 1992), ch. 5; H. Carrère d’Encausse,
The Great Challenge: Nationalities and the Bolshevik State, 1917–1930
(New York, 1992), ch. 4

12.
R. Pipes,
The Formation of the Soviet Union: Communism and Nationalism, 1917–1923
(Harvard University Press, Mass., rev. edn, 1964), pp. 43–50, 108

13.
A. J. Motyl,
Sovietology, Rationality, Nationality
(New York, Columbia University Press, 1990), p. 88

14.
ibid., p. 85; O. Subtelny,
Ukraine: A History
(Toronto, 1988), p. 389; A. J. Motyl, “Ukrainian nationalist political violence in inter-war Poland, 1921–1939,”
East European Quarterly
, 19: 1 (March 1985), pp. 45–56

15.
J. A. Armstrong,
Ukrainian Nationalism
(New York, Columbia University Press, 1990 edn), pp. 10–12; J. T. Gross,
Revolution from Abroad: The Soviet Conquest of Poland’s Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia
(Princeton, NJ, 1988), pp. 31–2. Needless to say, such celebrations were short-lived.

16.
R. Conquest,
Soviet Nationalities Policy in Practice
(London, 1967), pp. 26–9; R. Szporluk,
Communism and Nationalism: Karl Marx versus Friedrich List
(New York, 1985), p. 218

17.
L. E. Gelfand,
The Inquiry: American Preparations for Peace, 1917–1919
(New Haven, Conn., Yale University Press, 1963), p. 148; Rothwell, op. cit., p. 221

18.
Dmowski in P. Latawski, “Roman Dmowski, the Polish question and Western opinion, 1915–1918: the case of Britain,” in P. Latawski (ed.),
The Reconstruction of Poland, 1914–1923
(London, 1992), p. 9; two visions of Poland, O. Halecki,
The Limits and Divisions of European History
(London, 1950), p. 136

19.
P. Wandycz, “Dmowski’s policy at the Paris Peace Conference: success or failure?,” in Latawski, (ed.) op. cit., p. 120

20.
M. Levene,
Wars, Jews and the New Europe: The Diplomacy of Lucien Wolf, 1914–1919
(Oxford, 1992)

21.
ibid., p. 266; Wandycz in Latawski, (ed.) op. cit.; see also A. Polonsky and M. Riff, “Poles, Czechs and the ‘Jewish Question’, 1914–1921: A Comparative Study,” in V. Berghahn and M. Kitchen (eds.),
Germany in the Age of Total War
(London, 1981), pp. 63–101; F. M. Leventhal,
The Last Dissenter: H. N. Brailsford and His World
(Oxford, 1985), p. 159

22.
Goldstein,
Winning the Peace
(Oxford, 1991), p. 139

23.
J. Headlam-Morley,
A Memoir of the Paris Peace Conference, 1919
(London, 1972), pp. 112f; C. Macartney,
National States and National Minorities
(London, 1968 edn), pp. 282–3

24.
Cited by P. B. Finney, “ ‘An evil for all concerned’: Great Britain and minority protection after 1919,”
Journal of Contemporary History
, 30 (1995), pp. 536–7

25.
C. Fink, “ ‘Defender of Minorities’: Germany in the League of Nations, 1926–1933,”
Central European History
, 5: 4 (1972), pp. 330–57; R. Brubaker,
Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe
(Cambridge, Eng., 1996), ch. 5

26.
Figures from O. Junghann,
National Minorities in Europe
(New York, 1932), pp. 116, 119

27.
Headlam-Morley, op. cit., pp. 112–13

28.
Mill cited in A. Ryan,
J. S. Mill
(London, 1974), p. 207; S. Sierpowski, “Minorities in the system of the League of Nations,” in P. Smith (ed.),
Ethnic Groups in International Relations
(New York, 1991), p. 27; Schmitt, op. cit., pp. 9–10

29.
Schmitt, op. cit., pp. 9–10; A. Sarraut,
Grandeur et servitude coloniale
(Paris, 1931), p. 102; Sarraut, op. cit., p. 102

30.
H. Solus,
Traité de la condition des indigènes en droit privé
(Paris, 1927), pp. 117, 126; Algerians deported in A. Bockel,
L’Immigration au pays des Droits de l’homme
(Paris, 1991), p. 27

31.
I. Livezeanu,
Cultural Politics in Greater Romania: Regionalism, Nation Building and Ethnic Struggle, 1918–1930
(Ithaca, NY, Cornell, 1995), p. 47

32.
E. Mendelsohn,
The Jews of East Central Europe between the World Wars
(Bloomington, Ind., 1983), p. 105; R. Weisberg,
Vichy Law and the Holocaust in France
(New York, 1996), p. 13

33.
Cited by I. Claude,
National Minorities: An International Problem
(Harvard University Press, 1955), p. 30; numbers of petitions in Macartney, op. cit., p. 504 and J. Robinson
et al., Were the Minorities Treaties a Failure?
(New York, 1943), p. 252

34.
M. J. Somakian,
Empires in Conflict: Armenia and the Great Powers, 1895–1920
(London, 1995), pp. 86, 137; A. J. Toynbee,
The Western Question in Greece and Turkey
(London, 1923, 2nd edn), pp. 16–17

35.
The whole idea of transfers is powerfully criticized by O. Janowsky,
Nationalities and National Minorities
(New York, 1945), pp. 136–45

36.
F. Carsten,
The First Austrian Republic, 1918–1938
(London, 1986), p. 30; C. Skran,
Refugees in Inter-War Europe: The Emergence of a Regime
(Oxford, 1995), p. 104

37.
See M. Matsushita,
Japan in the League of Nations
(New York, 1929)

38.
Headlam-Morley, op. cit., p. 132

39.
S. A. Schuker,
The End of French Predominance in Europe: The Financial Crisis of 1924 and the Adoption of the Dawes Plan
(Chapel Hill, NC, 1976)

40.
A. Ramm,
Europe in the Twentieth Century, 1905–1970
(London, 1984), p. 186; G. Riou, “A French view of the League of Nations,”
The League and the Future of the Collective System
(London, 1937), pp. 28–40; E. H. Carr, “Public opinion as a safeguard of peace,”
International Affairs
(November 1936), pp. 846–62

41.
F. Berber, “The Third Reich and the future of the collective system,”
The League and the Future of the Collective System
(London, 1937), pp. 64–83

42.
Stoakes,
Hitler and the Quest for World Dominion
, p. 186; E. Jäckel,
Hitler’s World View: A Blueprint for Power
(Cambridge, Mass., 1981)

43.
Stoakes, op. cit., p. 160

44.
Quoted in
National Socialism: Basic Principles, Their Application by the Nazi Party’s Foreign Organization, and the Use of Germans abroad for Nazi Aims
(Washington, DC, 1943), p. 70

45.
P. Stirk, “Authoritarian and national socialist conceptions of nation, state and Europe,” in Stirk (ed.),
European Unity in Context: The Inter-War Period
(London, 1989), pp. 125–48

46.
J. Herz, “The National Socialist doctrine of international law and the problems of international organization,”
Political Science Quarterly
, 44: 4 (December 1939), pp. 536–54; also D. Diner, “Rassistisches Völkerrecht. Elemente einer nationalsozialistischen Weltordnung” in his
Weltordnungen: Über Geschichte und Wirkung von Recht und Macht
(Frankfurt, 1993), pp. 77–124

47.
C. A. Macartney, op. cit., foreword to 2nd (1934?) edn; W. Friedmann, “The disintegration of European civilisation and the future of international law,”
Modern Law Review
(December 1938), pp. 194–214

48.
Adenauer in H. Stoecker (ed.),
German Imperialism in Africa
(London, 1986), p. 323; D. Glass,
Population Policies and Movements
(London, 1940), p. 220

49.
G. Rochat,
Guerre italiane in Libia e in Ethiopia: Studi militari, 1921–1939
(Padua, 1991)

50.
G. W. Baer,
Test Case: Italy, Ethiopia and the League of Nations
(Stanford, Calif., 1967), pp. 296–7

51.
G. Bernardini, “The origins and development of racial anti-semitism in Fascist Italy,”
Journal of Modern History
, 49 (September 1977), pp. 431–53

52.
Baer, op. cit., p. 56; J. Delarue, “La guerra d’Abissinia vista dalla Francia: le sue ripercussioni nella politica interna,” in A. del Boca (ed.),
Le guerre coloniali del fascismo
(Bari, 1991), pp. 317–39; E. Weber, “France,” in Rogger and Weber, op. cit., p. 97

53.
Cited in R. Schlesinger,
Federalism in Central and Eastern Europe
(New York, 1945), pp. 457–8

54.
“Politics and right,” tr. from
Europaïsche Revue
, January 1941, in US Department of State,
National Socialism
, op. cit., pp. 471–7

55.
A. J. P. Taylor,
The Origins of the Second World War
(London, 1961),
passim

56.
W. Schmokel,
Dreams of Empire: German Colonialism, 1919–1945
(New Haven, Conn., Yale University Press, 1964); Stoecker, op. cit.; G. L. Weinberg, “German colonial plans and policies, 1938–42,” in his
World in the Balance
(London, 1981), pp. 96–136

57.
J. S. Huxley and A. C. Haddon,
We Europeans: A Survey of “Racial” Problems
(London/New York, 1936), pp. 13, 132, 236; more generally, E. Barkan,
The Retreat from Scientific Racism: Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States between the World Wars
(Cambridge, Eng., 1992)

58.
Cited by P. Kluke, “Nationalsozialistische Europaideologie,”
Vierteljahreshefte fur Zeitgeschichte
, 3: 3 (1955), pp. 240–69

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