Dark Continent: Europe's Twentieth Century (75 page)

53.
Fejtö, op. cit., p. 306

54.
Neuburg, op. cit., p. 265

55.
G. Ionescu,
The Break-Up of the Soviet Empire in Eastern Europe
(Harmondsworth, Middx, 1965), p. 26

56.
ibid., p. 41; Fejtö, op. cit., p. 158

57.
A. Gyorgy, “The internal political order,” in Fischer-Galati, op. cit., p. 190; Fejtö, op. cit., p. 463

9: D
EMOCRACY
T
RANSFORMED
: W
ESTERN
E
UROPE
, 1950–75

1.
Cited in J. Diefendorf,
In the Wake of War: The Reconstruction of German Cities after World War II
(Oxford, 1993), p. 132

2.
M. Kidron,
Western Capitalism since the War
(London, 1968), p. ix

3.
G. Perec (tr. D. Bellos),
Things: A Story of the Sixties
(London, 1991), p. 31

4.
W. F. Murphy, “Constitutions, constitutionalism and democracy,” in D. Greenberg (ed.),
Constitutionalism and Democracy
(New York, 1993), pp. 3–25

5.
See the discussion in J. F. Golay,
The Founding of the Federal Republic of Germany
(Chicago, 1958), pp. 175–81

6.
E. Wiskemann,
Germany’s Eastern Neighbours
(Oxford, 1956), p. 191; I. D. Connor, “The Bavarian government and the refugee problem, 1945–1950,”
European History Quarterly
, 16: 2 (1986), pp. 131–53; D. Childs, “The far Right in Germany since 1945,” in L. Cheles
et al
. (eds.),
Neo-Fascism in Europe
(London, 1991), p. 70

7.
T. Barnes, “The secret cold war: the CIA and American foreign policy in Europe, 1946–1956,”
Historical Journal
, 24: 2 (1981), pp. 399–415, and 25: 3 (1982), pp. 649–70

8.
P. Coleman,
The Liberal Conspiracy: The Congress for Cultural Freedom and the Struggle for the Mind of Postwar Europe
(New York, 1989); I. Wall,
The United States and the Making of Postwar France, 1945–1954
(Cambridge, 1991), pp. 213–16

9.
P. Hennessy and G. Brownfield, “Britain’s cold war security purge: the origins of positive vetting,”
Historical Journal
, 25: 4 (1982), pp. 965–73

10.
C. Friedrich, “The political theory of the new constitutions,” in A. Zurcher (ed.),
Constitutions and Constitutional Trends since World War II
(New York, 1955)

11.
S. Padgett and W. Paterson,
A History of Social Democracy in Postwar Europe
(London, 1991), pp. 13, 110

12.
Gaitskell in B. Moore-Gilbert and J. Seed (eds.),
Cultural Revolution? The Challenge of the Arts in the 1960s
(London, 1992), p. 22; Crossman cited in M. Pinto-Duschinsky, “Bread and circuses? The Conservatives in office, 1951–1964,” in V. Bogdanor and R. Skidelsky (eds.),
The Age of Affluence, 1951–1964
(London, 1970), p. 93

13.
A. J. Nicholls,
Freedom with Responsibility: The Social Market Economy in Germany, 1918–1963
(Oxford 1994), p. 11; also M. Mitchell, “Materialism and secularism: CDU politicians and National Socialism, 1945–1949,”
Journal of Modern History
, 67 (June 1995), pp. 278–308

14.
Lane and Ersson, op. cit., pp. 304–6

15.
P. Armstrong, A. Glyn and J. Harrison,
Capitalism since World War II: The Making and Breakup of the Great Boom
(London, 1984), pp. 156, 161–2; Dutch emigration policy, L. Kosinski,
The Population of Europe
(London, 1970), p. 71; L. Wylie,
Village in the Vaucluse
(Cambridge, Mass., 1974 edn), p. 33

16.
UN,
Economic Survey of Europe since the War: A Reappraisal of Problems and Prospects
(Geneva, 1953), pp. 81–3, 234

17.
R. Carr,
Modern Spain, 1875–1980
(Oxford, 1980), pp. 156–8; Gallagher,
Portugal: A Twentieth Century Interpretation
(Manchester, 1983), p. 138; A. Cochrane and
J. Clarke (eds.),
Comparing Welfare States: Britain in International Context
(London, 1993), pp. 211–14

18.
Figures from A. Maddison, “Economic policy and performance in Europe, 1913–1970,” in Cipolla (ed.),
The Fontana Economic History of Europe
, vol. 5:
The Twentieth Century
: 2 (London, 1981), pp. 442–509; J. Holloway, “The Dickensian environment,”
The Listener
, 12 January 1967

19.
J. Tomlinson,
Public Policy and the Economy since 1900
(Oxford, 1990), p. 238

20.
A. Boltho (ed.)
The European Economy: Growth and Crisis
(Oxford, 1982), pp. 11–16; E. Denison,
Why Growth Rates Differ
(Washington, DC, 1967)

21.
The debate is chiefly between A. Milward,
The Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1945–1951
(London, 1984) and M. Hogan,
The Marshall Plan: America, Britain and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1947–1952
(Cambridge, 1987). For US aid, M. Postan,
An Economic History of Western Europe, 1945–1964
(London, 1967), p. 106

22.
A. Maddison,
Phases of Capitalist Development
(Oxford, 1982), pp. 96–9; C. Maier, “Politics of productivity,” in P. J. Katzenstein (ed.),
Between Power and Plenty: Foreign Economic Policies of Advanced Industrial States
(Madison, Wis., 1978); from a growing literature on productivity, D. W. Ellwood,
Rebuilding Europe: Western Europe, America and Postwar Reconstruction
(London, 1992); R. Kuisel,
Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization
(Berkeley, Calif., 1993); for TU suspicions, see A. Carew, “The Anglo-American Council on Productivity (1948–1952): the ideological roots of the post-war debate on productivity in Britain,”
Journal of Contemporary History
, 26 (1991), pp. 49–69

23.
Wiskemann, op. cit., p. 176

24.
G. Lundestad,
The American “Empire” and Other Studies of US Foreign Policy in a Comparative Perspective
(Oslo, 1990); Postan, op. cit., p. 25

25.
Ellwood, op. cit., pp. 218–19

26.
A. Shonfield,
Modern Capitalism: The Changing Balance of Public and Private Power
(Oxford, 1965), p. 3

27.
ibid., p. 62; N. F. R. Crafts, “The golden age of economic growth in Western Europe, 1950–1973,”
Economic History Review
, 48:3 (1995), pp. 429–47

28.
Nicholls, op. cit., p. 321

29.
The argument is made for Britain by C. Barnett,
The Audit of War
(London, 1986), and refuted by J. Harris, “Enterprise and welfare states: a comparative perspective,”
Transactions of the Royal Historical Society
(1990), pp. 175–95

30.
Attlee in R. Lowe,
The Welfare State in Britain since 1945
(London, 1993), p. 10; T. H. Marshall,
Class, Citizenship, and Social Development
(New York, 1965)

31.
G. Esping-Andersen,
The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism
(Cambridge, 1990); Titmuss in Lowe, op. cit., p. 12

32.
Cited in K. D. Bracher,
The Age of Ideologies: A History of Political Thought in the 20th Century
(London, 1985), p. 200

33.
Cochrane, op. cit., p. 32

34.
T. H. Marshall, “The welfare state—a comparative study,” in his
Class, Citizenship and Social Development
, op. cit., p. 313; Ambrosius and Hubbard, op. cit., p. 128; Titmuss, op. cit., p. 241

35.
Baldwin denies any necessary link between specific classes and redistributive social policy: P. Baldwin,
The Politics of Social Solidarity: Class Bases of the European Welfare State, 1875–1975
(Cambridge, 1990), p. 290

36.
Marshall,
Class, Citizenship and Social Development
, op. cit., pp. 297–300, 330

37.
Shonfield, op. cit., p. xv; on the resilience of French conservatism, see R. Vinen,
Bourgeois Politics in France, 1945–1951
(Cambridge, 1995); A. Pizzorno, “The individualistic mobilisation of Europe,”
Daedalus
, 93: 1 (winter 1964)

38.
Cited in W. Sachs,
For Love of the Automobile: Looking Back into the History of Our Desires
(Berkeley/Los Angeles, Calif., 1992), pp. 55–6

39.
On women, see S. Weiner, “The
consommatrice
of the 1950s in Elsa Triolet’s
Roses à crédit,” French Cultural Studies
, vi (1995), pp. 123–44; C. Duchen,
Women’s Rights and Women’s Lives in France, 1944–1968
(London, 1994);
Bikini: Die Fünfziger Jahre
(Berlin, 1983), p. 200; M. Boneschi,
La grande illusione: i nostri anni sessanta
(Milan, 1996), p. 93

40.
F. Mort and P. Thompson, “Retailing, commercial culture and masculinity in 1950s Britain: the case of Montague Burton, the ‘Tailor of Taste,’ ”
History Workshop Journal
, 38 (1994), pp. 106–29; J. Pearson and G. Turner,
The Persuasion Industry
(London, 1965), pp. 30–31

41.
T. R. Nevitt,
Advertising in Britain: A History
(London, 1982)

42.
Wylie, op. cit., pp. 181, 347; R. Harris and A. Seldon,
Advertising in Action
(London, 1962), pp. 23–4

43.
A. Sampson,
Anatomy of Europe
(New York, 1968), p. 116; R. Wagnleiter,
Coca-Colonization and the Cold War: The Cultural Mission of the United States in Austria after the Second World War
(Chapel Hill, NC/London, 1994), p. 294; S. Gundle, “L’americanizzazione del quotidiano: televisione e consumismo nell’Italia degli anni cinquanta,”
Quaderni storici
, 62 (August 1986), pp. 561–94; Hiscocks, op. cit., p. 55; K. Ross,
Fast Cars, Clean Bodies: Decolonization and the Reordering of French Culture
(Cambridge, Mass./London, 1995), p. 53; Gundle, op. cit., p. 588

44.
C. Dyer,
Population and Society in 20th Century France
(London, 1978), p. 222

45.
N. Stacey and A. Wilson,
The Changing Pattern of Distribution
(Oxford, 1965 edn), p. 390; J. Benson,
The Rise of Consumer Society in Britain, 1880–1980
(London, 1994), p. 88; Sampson, op. cit., p. 232

46.
Fussell, op. cit., Hans Magnus Enzensberger,
Eine Theorie des Tourismus
(Frankfurt, 1963)

47.
Stacey and Wilson, op. cit., p. 334; Joe Curry cited in Ellwood, op. cit., p. 208

48.
Cited in Marshall, “The affluent society in perspective,” p. 341; on the convergence in reproduction patterns, D. V. Glass, “Fertility trends in Europe since the Second World War,”
Population Studies
, 22:1 (March 1968), pp. 103–47

49.
K. D. Bracher, “Problems of parliamentary democracy in Europe,”
Daedalus
, 93: 1 (winter 1964), p. 185f; Habermas cited in R. Kearney, op. cit., p. 230

50.
Cited in P. Ginsborg, op. cit., p. 248; Duhamel in Kuisel, op. cit., p. 11

51.
Jean-Marie Domenach, “Le modèle américain,”
Esprit
(July-August 1960), p. 1221 cited in Kuisel, op. cit., p. 109

52.
Pizzorno, “The individualistic mobilisation of Europe,”
Daedalus
, 93: 1 (winter 1964), p. 199

53.
Cited in Kuisel, op. cit., p. 65

54.
Pizzorno, op. cit.; R. Willett,
The Americanisation of Germany, 1945–1949
(London, 1989), pp. 49–51

55.
See D. Strinati, “The taste of America: Americanisation and popular culture in Britain,” in Strinati and S. Wagg (eds.),
Come on Down? Popular Music and Culture in Postwar Britain
(London, 1992), pp. 46f