The Unknown Warrior (20 page)

Battlefield sites have as much evidence of shot for the presence of infantry as siege sites in terms of the location of musket balls. Marston Moor, close to York in the north of England – the site of a decisive battle in 1644 – has been examined and through fieldwalking thousands of these objects have been retrieved. ‘Some of the bullets had been flattened or hammered before being fired, possibly to create a more lethal projectile; other bullets bore the marks of human teeth, probably from “biting the bullet”, while in a few instances, bullets were fused together, suggesting that the soldier had rammed two bullets into his weapon' (Harrington, 2004: 84).

Further research on the Marston Moor site has yielded lead priming nozzles and caps and powder bottles from bandoliers – a similar situation to studies of the 1645 battlefield of Naseby (
ibid.
: 84; for a plot of musket ball finds, see Battlefields Trust, 2004). Musket balls are frequently found by metal detectorists and their finds need proper recording to facilitate accurate distribution plots of troop movements. Foard (2001: 97) has also produced a distribution plot of musket balls on the important 1645 battlefield, which saw the decisive defeat of the king's armies by those of the New Model Army of the Parliament. Pollard and Oliver have found many musket balls on the 1642 battlefield of Edgehill, Warwickshire, some of which are flattened indicating that they have, perhaps, struck a target – these too have enabled a distribution plot (Pollard and Oliver, 2003: 112–13). Caps from powder boxes and powder flask tops have been found at Beeston and Sandal Castles – with experimental work suggesting that these were lost most frequently in hand-to-hand fighting (Foard, 2001: 94).

The excavation of a V-shaped ditch with flat bottom, forming part of the English Civil War defences of the castle of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, discovered much by way of the accoutrements of the infantry within the fill of the ditch. Artefacts included musket balls, the rest for a musket and powder flasks that would have held the charge for the musketeer's firearm. These flasks were worn in a leather belt slung over the musketeer's shoulder and were known as the ‘twelve apostles'. More unusual was the pottery grenade discovered (Harrington, 1992: 22–3). Although there is no full context for the ceramic grenades found at Leicester in 1854, Courtney and Courtney (1992: 70) concluded that the weight of probability lay in these being ‘left by one of the royalist or parliamentarian garrisons of the conflict [English Civil War]'. The ceramic grenades were all unglazed and predominantly of oxidised red earthenware. They show that gunpowder was of huge importance in combat.

The pikeman's panoply of weapons may also be represented at Newcastle-upon-Tyne with the finding of an iron pole-arm blade (Harrington, 1992: 22–3). The long thin blade of a pike head, with flattened diamond section, and a further example with a lozenge-shaped blade, hollow shaft socket and two extending prongs, which would have run along the length of the pike staff to prevent it being lopped off by a sword, were found by excavations at Basing House (Moorhouse, 1971: 53). Swords were carried both by cavalry and infantry, although lower ranking infantry would have had far less ornate pieces. Some blade weapons do survive – the English basket-hilted sword fragment, dating to around 1645, found in the siege trench at Sandal Castle, Yorkshire (Credland, 1983: 265), and the sword blade and hilt from Pontefract (Eaves, 2002: 327) are examples.

Although the finds of armour and weaponry may not be especially common, Foard (2001: 94) makes an important point that the presence of pikemen and their location on the battlefield can be discerned with other methods: ‘In each regiment during the Civil War they [the musketeers] were typically deployed in two bodies, one on either side of the pike, which comprised the remaining third. Hence although archaeologically the bodies of pike will be largely invisible on the field, their location can be inferred from the evidence for the musketeers.'

ARMOUR

Pollard and Oliver discovered a small metal button with a simple design on its face ‘and typical of the garb of a medieval Scottish soldier' from the site of the 1513 Battle of Flodden. Furthermore, an armour square that would have fitted within padded armour of similar style to the sets we have seen at Visby (see
Chapter 4
, pages 84–5), and a fastening for a leather belt or piece of armour were found (Pollard and Oliver, 2002: 159, 160). Although the firearms of the period were often inaccurate, cumbersome and of little impact on the battle, a direct hit would have rendered armour relatively useless. It was the ending of an era.

Armour was also in use by the infantry of the Armada. The work on
La Trinidad Valencera
has found a number of interesting pieces, including several
morion
-type helmets. These have peaked ends to the fore and back and flat sides to deflect blows. The
morions
on board the ship appear to have been highly decorated with etched designs and brass rosettes, and provided with plume holders. This decoration seems to have been important enough to have required covering to prevent damage as concretion on one example seems to indicate the presence of a fabric cover. Another helmet still had its internal padding present – vital if it was to be of any use to the infantryman. This padding was composed of a coarse cloth stuffed with pine needles and led the excavators to state that ‘this would have effectively absorbed impact transmitted via the surface of the helmet, and is very similar in concept to the well-designed German infantry helmet of WW1 [the first issue of which was the M1916 – RO]. Sixteenth-century Spanish
morions
were clearly designed with the hazards of combat engineering and trench warfare in mind' (Martin, 2001: 84).

Breastplates of a type which would have been used by pikemen were also recovered from
La Trinidad Valencera
. Such breastplates were supposed to be proof against firearms from some distance – witness the later Civil War examples with impressions of musket balls as a type of ‘quality seal'. Although this may have been the case, by the end of the English Civil War, the back- and breastplate with tassets was generally abandoned by pikemen, who opted instead for the leather ‘buff ' coat, as it was durable, relatively efficient against blade weapons and, above all, light.

Although losing its efficacy, armour has been recovered from secure archaeological contexts of the English Civil War period. The top of a metal collar or ‘gorget', over which a helmet would have fitted, was found at Basing House (Moorhouse, 1971: 54), and another at Pontefract Castle (Eaves, 2002: 330–1). It is this latter site which provides us with the best archaeological source for armour used by the infantry in the English Civil War. From Civil War layers, such as the fill of the garderobe, and from within a countermine came several fragments representing some of the protective equipment used by the defenders. The surprising fact is that many of the pieces were quite old.

Helmets featured among the assemblage. The right cheek-piece of a ‘burgonet' helmet and two
morions
(see Plate 15) were found in the countermine shafts in the bakehouse and the Elizabethan Chapel (Eaves, 2002: 325–9). Body armour was also found: a backplate, with evidence for replacement of one of its shoulder straps, and another heavy backplate that was unlikely to have been made post-1630 (
ibid.
: 327). Fragments of the armoured ‘skirt' extending from the body armour of the pikeman to protect his upper thighs during pike-push and tassets were found (
ibid.
: 338).

Armour of a type used at Visby and Flodden was also in evidence during the English Civil War period, with examples of the iron plates sewn into fabric jackets being found at Pontefract (
ibid.
: 341) and Beeston (Ellis, 1993: 160–2). Two pieces of iron plate for such a coat were also discovered in Keep Area F at Sandal Castle (Credland, 1983: 266). This was supposedly obsolete even by the fifteenth century, let alone the mid-seventeenth century, but still it was pressed into infantry use.

In terms of clothing, work on
La Trinidad Valencera
revealed elements of the costume of those on board, presumably both of the infantry and the seamen. Woollen garments dominated, including heraldic surcoats, and several pairs of durable rope-soled shoes (
alpargatos
) were found.

On land, the excavations of Pollard and Oliver on the site of the Civil War Battle of Edgehill located a number of buttons. Some of these were silver-plated and with ornate designs, perhaps belonging to officers, and others were plain and ‘fastened the more modest attire of the rank and file' (Pollard and Oliver, 2003: 112). Elements of footwear, so vital for infantrymen, have been excavated from English Civil War sites. Finds at Basing House included a boot heel with iron shoe and nails, and a leather sole and upper dating to the second quarter of the seventeenth century, which probably represented soldiers' boots from the siege of the house and were sturdy enough to have survived over 350 years (Moorhouse, 1971: 62).

PRACTICE AND DISCIPLINE

Skeletal evidence may be as good as many sources in pointing to extensive military practice in the sixteenth century. Continued use of the longbow had resulted in pathological changes to the skeletons of those found on board the
Mary Rose
, in much the same fashion as those men found at Towton (see
Chapter 4
). Also, fourteen of the skulls found on the vessel displayed wounds that were not fractures and might have been inflicted on experienced fighting men. One of these skulls seemed to have suffered a penetrating arrow wound with the angle of wound indicating a blow from above, a blow from which the man recovered. ‘He was probably wearing a helmet, and small fragments of helmets were found during the excavation of the wreck. The bone around the wound was healing, so the attack was a fairly recent one. Alternatively, it has been suggested that a practice arrow at the butts, rather than during battle, could have caused this wound. In the former case, the bodkin arrowhead would have been wrapped, so that it did not cause permanent injury or death, although it may have penetrated his helmet. During battle, however, the arrow would have been naked and would easily have penetrated any helmet, probably fatally' (Stirland, 2000: 104–6).

Several treatises were written by the time of the English Civil War, including Thomas Jenner's
The Military Discipline Wherein is Martially Showne The Order for Drilling the Musket and the Pike
(1642). Although many combatants of the officer class had learned their martial trade through fighting in the Thirty Years War (1618–48) in central Europe, trained militias, such as the London Trained Bands, provided the backbone for the armies of the Parliament at the start of the English Civil War. Despite some successes, their results were not to the level hoped for by Parliament, and so the New Model Army was created, with an emphasis on the importance of discipline and practice. This army provided a radical military rethink, culminating with stunning victories such as Naseby in 1645. As the first genuine standing army in England, the New Model effectively held power for some ten years after the execution of Charles I. Training would certainly have been required to use a musket effectively or to play a role in the pike square. Without training, the results could be dreadful – historical references exist for musketeers blowing themselves up at Pontefract Castle by overcharging their weapons, and also for shooting their comrades by mistake (Roberts, 2002: 431).

Part of this practice and discipline would undoubtedly have involved essential maintenance by the footsoldier of his weapon to ensure that it was kept clean, lessening the chances of it fouling or misfiring in battle. Such fatigues are still an important part of the infantryman's duties. A barrel scourer pertaining to this work was found in excavations at Beeston Castle. This object was ‘screwed into the end of a ramrod and then used to clean scale from gun barrels' (Ellis, 1993: 157). So, although historical sources may still be the best evidence for training and discipline, the archaeological record also provides fascinating insights into essential work.

THE LIFE OF THE SOLDIER

The finding of a Jew's harp in excavations of English Civil War layers at Gloucester indicates one of the pastimes of the soldier when not in action. A further element that shows that the life of the soldier was far from monastic was the find of ten animal-membrane condoms from the garderobe (latrine) of Dudley Castle, which was slighted, and thus sealed, in 1647. The deposit was composed of ‘both the domestic and organic remains of the occupying Royalist force which had defended the castle under siege conditions between 1643 and 1646' (Gaimster,
et al.
, 1996: 129). Five of the condoms were in very fragmentary condition, but the other five were more complete with surviving lengths of 47, 47.1, 20.5, 51.5 and 56.2mm (diameter 30.5, 34.3, 31.0, 30.3 and 38.0mm). These may have related to officers' activities, but it is an important indicator that life went on despite conditions of privation for many within besieged sites.

Drinking

The skeletons of the crew of the
Mary Rose
perhaps reveal the use of flavourings within their drinks in the decay of their teeth. ‘Apparently, the crew of the
Mary Rose
is the earliest known group to show a modern pattern of decay … Although there was no widespread consumption of sugar in the first half of the sixteenth century, it had been suggested that the crew probably used honey “and other cariogenic foods and drinks”' (Stirland, 2000: 84).

In addition to evidence written on the bones of the crew, artefactual evidence points to the consumption of alcohol on board, particularly beer. Oak-staved containers with willow hooping were found on the wreck alongside seventeen spiles. This latter item, most frequently of poplar wood, was a tapering wooden object which would have been hammered into the container in place of the bung to allow the beer to flow freely. Drinking vessels were also located on the ship, with wooden tankards lined with pitch being present, and leather flasks, again with an internal pitch coating, being recovered (see
Mary Rose
, 2005).