The Good and Evil Serpent (153 page)

287
. Antoninus Pius circulated a medallion commemorating this event; see the photograph in
EAA
4 (1961) 945:1126.

288
. See the illustration in Kerényi,
Asklepios
, p. 4 (Fig. 2).

289
. See the interesting speculation by Kerényi that depictions of mice can well denote that a meal for a serpent is symbolized. See his “On Snakes and Mice in the Cults of Apollo and Asklepios,” in
Asklepios
, pp. 102–05.

290
. See R. MacMullen,
Paganism in the Roman Empire
(New Haven, London, 1981) p. 12.

291
. On the general phenomenon of healing in the Ancient Near East, see Avalos,
Illness and Health Care in the Ancient Near East
, esp. chapter 1, “Greece: The Temples of Asclepius.”

292
. R. Caton,
The Temples and Ritual of Asklepios at Epidauros and Athens
(London, 1900). See esp. the illustration on p. 46.

293
. See esp. “Die Heilungen in Epidauros,” in Kerényi,
Der Göttliche Arzt
, pp. 25–56 (with illustrations). Also see the map of Epidaurus and plan of the Asclepian Temple in illustrations 19 and 20 in Leipoldt and Grundmann,
Umwelt des Urchristentums
.

294
. See “Die Asklepiossöhne auf Kos,” in Kerényi,
Der Göttliche Arzt
, pp. 57–78 (with illustrations).

295
. See the reconstruction by H. Schleif presented in Kerényi,
Der Göttliche Arzt
, p. 55 (with illustrations).

296
. See “Asklepios in Rom,” in Kerényi,
Der Göttliche Arzt
, pp. 9–24 (with illustrations).

297
. Edelstein and Edelstein,
Asclepius
, vol. 2, p. 116.

298
. See the same judgment expressed in Leipoldt and Grundmann,
Umwelt des Urchristentums
, vol. 1, p. 69.

299
. See the serpent in illustration no. 2 in Leipoldt and Grundmann,
Umwelt des Christentums
.

300
. See A. Bouché-Leclercq,
Histoire de la divination dans l’antiquité
(Paris, 1880; rep. in Darmstadt, 1978) vol. 3, p. 290.

301
. See esp. the following publications: H. von Fritze, “Die Münze von Pergamon,”
Abhandlungen der Königlich-Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Philosophisch-historische Klasse-Anhang
(Berlin, 1910); O. Bernhard, “Asklepios und sein Geschlecht auf griechischen und römischen Münzen,”
Ciba-Zeitschr
(1936) 1014–20; P. R. Franke, “Asklepios—Aesculapius auf antiken Münzen,”
Medizinischer Monatsspiegel
3 (1969) 60–67; K. W. Harl,
Coinage in the Roman Economy: 300 B.C. to A.D. 700
(Baltimore, London, 1996); T. Kroha,
Grosses Lexikon der Numismatik
(Gütersloh, 1997); see esp. pp. 40, 95, 214, 242, and 466; and R. Plant,
Greek Coin Types and Their Identification
(London, 1979).

302
. K.-H. Hunger seeks to comprehend what the Asclepian staff means in communication; see his
Der Äskulapstab
(Berlin, 1978).

303
. See the drawing in Kerenyi,
Der Göttliche Artz
, p. 18.

304
. Ibid., p. 34.

305
. Ibid., pp. 43 and 113.

306
. I well remember how de Vaux so animatedly lectured at the Ecole Biblique in the 1960s. As when working on serpent symbolism we must forget the present negative connotations, so with canine symbolism we must forget the regnant positive assumptions and experiences (esp. in the West).

307
. See esp. P. France et al., “Dog,” in
An Encyclopedia of Bible Animals
(Tel Aviv, 1986) pp. 50–51.

308
. An example of the dog as a negative symbol is found in Norse myths; it is the horrible Garm.

309
. See H. Biedermann, “Dog,” in
Dictionary of Symbolism
, trans. J. Hulbert (New York, 1994) pp. 97–99.

310
. As cited by R. Jackson in
Doctors and Diseases in the Roman Empire
(London, 1988) p. 140.

311
. Sometimes Hygieia is incorrectly reported to be the wife of Asclepius.

312
. Aristides,
Oratio
38, 22; see Edelstein and Edelstein,
Asclepius
, vol. 1, p. 133. For the text of Aristides, see C. A. Behr and F. W. Lenz,
P. Aelii Aristides Opera Quae Exstant Omnia
, 2 vols. (Leiden, 1976–1980). Also see P. Aelius Aristides,
The Complete Works
, 2 vols., ed. and trans. C. A. Behr (Leiden, 1981–86).

313
. See note 317 and 318 on ancient coins.

314
. For bibliography and a succinct discussion of Hygieia, see Z. Goceva, “Hygieia,”
LIMC
, 5.1, pp. 554–73.

315
. See esp. the photograph of the statue of Hygieia in Rhodes from about 140 CE in Kerenyi,
Der Göttliche Arzt
, p. 68.

316
. No mention of the snake is found in the Orphic Hymn to Hygieia (68).

317
. Y. Meshorer,
The Coinage of Aelia Capitolina
(Jerusalem, 1989) pp. 114, 5667. See esp. the anguine iconography on the reverse of coin no. 175 (p. 115).

318
. K. Butcher,
Roman Provincial Coins
(London, 1988) see esp. pp. 67, 68, 78, 87.

319
. See also the photograph in
LIMC
, V.2, Plate 381, no. 9.

320
. See the photograph in
LIMC
, V.2, Plate 382, no. 22.

321
. See the photograph in
LIMC
, V.2, Plate 390, no. 128.

322
. According to a carving of c. 400 CE, the serpent is shown curled affectionately around her shoulder and nibbling from a fruit, or nut, held in her right hand. The mouth of the serpent is formed into a smile. See the photograph in
EAA
3 (1960) 142.

323
. For example, see
LIMC
, V.2, Plate 390, no. 124.

324
. Consult A. N. Athanassakis,
The Orphic Hymns: Text, Translation and Note
(Missoula, 1977) pp. 56–57.

325
. On the image of “the father,” see Y. Knibiehler,
Geschichte der Väter: Eine kultur-undsocialhistorische Spurensuche
(Freiburg, Basel, 1996).

326
. Pliny,
Nat
. 29.4 (22) 72; see the Latin and English translation in Edelstein and Edelstein,
Asclepius
, p. 362.

327
. See the photographs of the game boards preserved in the Oriental Institute, Metropolitan Museum of Art, and Musée du Louvre published in A. Levey, “Bad Timing: Time to Get a New Theory,”
BAR
24.4 (1998) 18–23; the photographs are on p. 21. Also see “Jouer dans l’antiquité,”
Musées de Marseille
(Paris, 1991) pp. 125–29; and see Catalogue Nos. 174–75; M.-N. Bellesort, “Le jeu de serpent: Jeux et jouets dans l’antiquité et le Moyen Age,”
Dossiers d’archéologie
(1992) 8–9.

328
. See M. Schmidt,
Der Basler Medeasarkophag: Ein Meisterwerk Spàtanto-ninischer Kunst
(Tubingen, 1997); see the serpents depicted on illustration 1, 9, 19 (close-up of Medea and the curled and upright serpents), 21 (close-up of serpents and the man being crushed beneath them), 28 (from the Berlin Medea sarcophagus, showing two majestic serpents with wings drawing Medea in her chariot), p. 32 (the fleeing Medea on the backs of two winged serpents, from an ash urn from Ostia), photos of the Medea sarcophagi in Rome (Aula VI Thermen Museum) and in Mantua (Palazzo Ducale). Sometimes Medea is depicted feeding a serpent; see the illustration in
EAA
4 (1961) 951:1135. Sometimes she is shown with two massive serpents; see the illustration in
EAA
4 (1961) 956.

329
. Inv. SK 843 b. See the photograph in Schmidt,
Der Basler Medeasarkophag
, illustration p. 28.

330
. Inv. Nr. 10. See the photograph in Schmidt,
Der Basler Medeasarkophag
, illustration p. 31.

331
. In Aula VI; Neg. Rom. Inst. 63. See the photograph in Schmidt,
Der Basler Medeasarkophag
, illustration on p. 32.

332
. See Ch. Belting-Ihm, “Sarcofago,”
EAA
7 (1966) 2–40; esp. see the ophidian iconography shown on pp. 18 (Hercules), 21:31 (Eleusinian myth), 34:52 (S. Maria Antiqua). Also see p. 107 (caduceus in the hand of a male; Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen). Note also the second-century CE shroud designed to be placed on a mummy that is now preserved in the Staatliche Museen in Berlin. It shows an upraised cobra. I have no doubt that in this instance rejuvenation and thoughts about the new life after death were intended. See the color photograph in
EAA
7 (1966) opposite p. 546. Also see the picture of the anguiped Tritons and the Nereides depicted on the sarcophagus in the Musei Vaticani; it is found in
EAA
7 (1966) 991. Also see the sarcophagi shown in
EAA
9 (1973) 720 and 727.

333
. See the photographs in
EAA
4 (1961) 91:119 and 393:463 and 955:1139.

334
. It is in the Museo Nazionale in Taranto; see
LIMC
, V.2, p. 433.

335
. One is in the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg (no. 586; [St. 350]; see
LIMC
, II.2, p. 135), and another in Museo Nazionale in Policoro (see
LIMC
, II.2, p. 139).

336
. It is in the Basel Antikenmuseum und Sammlung Ludwig. For a photograph see
LIMC
, VII.2, p. 610.

337
. It is in the National Museum in Copenhagen (no. 731).

338
. The sarcophagus is in the Museo degli Uffizi in Florence. See the illustration in
LIMC
, III.2, p. 679.

339
. One is in the Palazzo Rospiglios, another in Amalfi Cathedral, and a third in the Villa Giustiniani Massimo; all are in Rome. See the illustrations in
LIMC
, IV.2, p. 233 and IV.2, p. 234.

340
. See
LIMC
, VIII.2, pp. 645–46.

341
. See
LIMC
, VIII.2, p. 652.

342
. They are in the Aachen Cathedral, Walton House, the Louvre, and in the Cabinet des Médailles (he is depicted on a plate). See
LIMC
, I V.2, p. 605.

343
. One is in Aachen (Dom G 3 [see the photograph in
LIMC
, V.2, p. 420]), and another in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna (I 1126 [see the photograph in
LIMC
, V.2, p. 420]).

344
. See illustration no. 29 in Leipoldt and Grundmann,
Umwelt des Urchristentums
. See the discussion in G. D’Alviella,
The Mysteries of Eleusis
(Wellingborough, Northhamptonshire, 1981) esp. pp. 22–25 and in G. Siettos,
The Eleusinian Mysteries
(Athens, 1993 [in Greek]).

345
. See G. Bauchhenss,
Jupitergigantensäulen
, ed. Ph. Filtzinger (Stuttgart, 1976); see the illustrations of Jupiter trampling with his horse on a Giant (Nos. 24, 26), or using the Giant with his massive serpentine feet to elevate his horses (Nos. 25, 27), and even sometimes his chariot. Sometimes the Giant uses his hands (Nos. 28, 29) or the serpent heads of his legs (not shown, but see RL 412 in the Württembergisches Landesmuseum Stuttgart, Altes Schloss).

346
. In the third century CE, Alexander Severus issued a medallion that shows Asclepius riding on the back of a winged serpent that has a goatee. He also holds in his hand a staff with a serpent around it. See the drawing in Kerényi,
Der Göttliche Arzt
, p. 106.

347
. For the Greek and English translation, see A. D. Godley,
Herodotus
(LCL; London, Cambridge, Mass., 1957) vol. 2, pp. 394–95. For the vocabulary of Herodotus, see J. E. Powell,
A Lexicon to Herodotus
(London, 1938 [2nd ed.]; reprinted in Hildesheim and New York in 1966).

348
. See 2.75; for the Greek and English translation, see Godley,
Herodotus
, vol. 1, pp. 360–61.

349
. See 3.109; for the Greek and English translation, see Godley,
Herodotus
, vol. 2, pp. 136–37.

350
. Aelian,
Nat. an
. 2.38. For the Greek and English translation, see Aelian,
On the Characteristics of Animals
, vol. 1, pp. 134–35.

351
. See F. Cumont,
Recherches sur le symbolisme funéraire des Romains
(Paris, 1842, repr. New York, 1995). See Nock’s review of Cumont’s work in
JRS
38 (1948) 154–56; and Nock, “Sarcophagi and Symbolism.”

352
. I am indebted to the summary by F. R. Walton, “After-Life,” in
OCD
, pp. 23–24.

353
. See I. Rumpel,
Lexicon Pindaricum
(Stuttgart, 1883; reprinted in Hildesheim and New York in 1961).

354
. For the Greek and English translation, see J. Sandys,
The Odes of Pindar
(LCL: London, Cambridge, Mass., 1961) pp. 22–25. Also see the references to the Island of the Blessed Ones in
The History of the Rechabites
, ed. and trans. Charlesworth (Chico, Calif., 1982).

355
. Farnell,
Greek Hero Cults
, p. 379.

356
. See G. Siettos,
The Pythagorean Mysteries
(Athens, 1993 [in Greek]).

357
. See W. Burkert,
Ancient Mystery Cults
(Cambridge, Mass., London, 1987) p. 29. Contrast J. S. Jeffers, who thinks that “the mystery religion … promised Romans an afterlife.” Jeffers,
The Greco-Roman World of the New Testament Era
(Downers Grove, Ill., 1999) p. 98.

358
. See Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges,
The Ancient City
(Baltimore, 1980 [a reprint of an earlier work, since the author died in 1889]) p. 7