The Balkans: A Short History (24 page)

5. Rhigas in R. Clogg, ed.,
The Movement for Greek Independence,
1770–1821
(London, 1976), pp. 157–63. E. A. Freeman, “Race and Language,” Contemporary Review 29 (1877), pp. 711–41.

6. Cf. Ami Boué,
Recueil d’itineraires dans la Turquie d’Europe
(Vienna, 1854), vol. 2, pp. 327–32; H. F. Tozer,
Researches in the Highlands of
Turkey
(London, 1869), vol. 1, pp. 393–97; Saint-Marc Girardin cited in T. G. Djuvara,
Cent projets de partage de la Turquie (1281–1913)
(Paris, 1914), p. 496.

7. F. Crousse,
La Péninsule greco-slave
(Brussels, 1876); T. Fischer,
Mittelmeerbilder
(Leipzig, 1906), p. 44; D. M. Brancoff (Dimitur Mishev),
La Macedoine et sa population chretienne
(Paris, 1905), p. 3; J. R. Marriott,
The Eastern Question: An Historical Study in European Diplomacy
(Oxford, 1917), p. 21.

8. H. de Windt,
Through Savage Europe
(London, 1907), p. 15; Todorova,
Imagining the Balkans,
p. 122.

9. R. West,
Black Lamb and Grey Falcon
(London, 1943), vol. 1, p. 23.

10. E. Christiansen,
The Northern Crusades
(London, 1997), p. 2; on the two phases of Muslim Holy War against Europe, see B. Lewis, The Muslim Discovery of Europe (New York, 1982), pp. 20–28; K. M. Setton,
Prophecies of Turkish Doom
(Philadelphia, 1992), p. 4.

11. Setton, Prophecies of Turkish Doom, and K. M. Setton,
Europe and the
Levant in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance
(London, 1974); Knolles cited in Lewis,
The Muslim Discovery of Europe,
p. 32; on Muslim and Turk as synonyms, see N. Matar,
Islam in Britain, 1558–1685
(Cambridge, 1998), p. 21.

12. L. Valensi, Venezia e la Sublima Porta: La nascita del despota (Bologna, 1989), pp. 41, 44; L. Stavrianos, The Balkans since 1453 (New York, 1965), pp. 74–75.

13. Matar,
Islam in Britain,
pp. 14, 22.

14. See A. Pippidi, “La Decadence de l’Empire ottoman comme concept historique, de la Renaissance aux lumières,”
Revue des Etudes
Sud-Est Européennes
35, no. 1–2 (1997), pp. 5–19.

15. As Pippidi notes, there was also a countercurrent, rather weaker, of pro-Turkish critics of contemporary European society, of whom Montesquieu was among the most prominent. Ibid., pp. 18–19.

16. A. J. Evans,
Through Bosnia and the Hercegovina on Foot
(London, 1877), p. 89; H. Holland,
Travels in the Ionian Islands, Albania, Thessaly, Macedonia etc. during the Years 1812 and 1813
(London, 1815), pp. 69–70;
The War Correspondence of Leon Trotsky: The Balkan Wars, 1912–1913
(New York, 1981), pp. 58–59.

17. E. A. Freeman,
Ottoman Power in Europe
(London, 1877), p. 1; A. Oakes and R. B. Mowat, eds.,
The Great European Treaties of the Nineteenth
Century
(Oxford, 1918), p. 177; see N. Sousa,
The Capitulatory Regime
of Turkey: Its History, Origins, and Nature
(Baltimore, 1933), p. 162. See also J. C. Hurewitz, “Ottoman Diplomacy and the European State System,”
Middle East Journal
15 (1961), pp. 141–52.

18. Anon. (Lord JR),
The Establishment of the Turkish Empire
(London, 1828), p. 27; R. G. Latham, The Ethnology of Europe (London, 1852), p. 6; R. G. Latham,
The Nationalities of Europe
(London, 1863), vol. 2, p. 69; E. Joy Morris, Notes of a Tour through Turkey, Greece, Egypt, Arabia
Petraea to the Holy Land
(Philadelphia, 1842), vol. 1, p. 48; E. Durham,
The Burden of the Balkans
(London, 1905), p. 104.

19. Boué,
Recueil d’itineraires,
vol. 2, p. 331; on the expulsion of Muslims from Balkan states, see A. Toumarkine,
Les Migrations des populations
musulmanes balkaniques en Anatolie (1876–1913)
(Istanbul, 1995), a useful source to set against the less balanced J. McCarthy,
Death and
Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821–1922
(Princeton, N.J., 1995); on shrinking of Turkish usage, see B. Lory, “Parler le turc dans les Balkans ottomans au XIXe siècle,” in F. Georgeon and P. Dumont, eds., Vivre dans l’Empire ottoman (Paris, 1997), pp. 237–45; on destruction of monuments, see M. Kiel,
Studies on the Ottoman
Architecture of the Balkans
(Aldershot, Eng., 1990).

20. F. Moore, “The Changing Map of the Balkans,”
The National Geographic Magazine
(February 1913), pp. 199–226.

21. J. V. de la Roiere, Voyage en Orient (Paris, 1836), p. 23; War Correspon
dence of Trotsky,
p. 272.

22. Marriott, Eastern Question, p. 3; O. Halecki, The Limits and Divisions of European History (New York, 1962), pp. 47, 77–78.

23. T. Zhivkov cited in M. Kiel,
Art and Society of Bulgaria in the Turkish
Period
(Maastricht, 1985), p. 34, n. 1.

24. My thanks to Dimitri Livanios for his very helpful formulations of these issues.

1. THE LAND AND ITS INHABITANTS

1. F. Braudel,
The Mediterranean
(London, 1972), vol. 1, pp. 25–53.

2. M. Newbigin,
The Mediterranean Lands
(London, 1924), p. 46; M. Adelaide Walker,
Through Macedonia to the Albanian Lakes
(London, 1864), p. 87.

3. A. J. Evans,
Through Bosnia and the Herzegovina on Foot
(London, 1877), p. 359; M. Djilas,
Land without Justice: An Autobiography of His Youth
(New York, 1958), p. 79.

4. A. Kinglake,
Eothen
(Oxford, 1982), p. 22.

5. M. von Tietz,
St. Petersburgh, Constantinople and Napoli di Romania in
1833 and 1834
(New York, 1836), p. 96.

6. H. F. Tozer,
Researches in the Highlands of Turkey
(London, 1869), vol. 1, p. 382.

7. T. Stoianovich,
Balkan Worlds: The First and Last Europe
(New York, 1994), p. 107.

8. M. Zdraveva, “The Menzil Service in Macedonia, Particularly around Bitolj, in the Period of Turkish Domination,”
Etudes Balkaniques
2 (1995), pp. 82–88; J. A. Blanqui,
Voyage en Bulgarie pendant l’année 1844
(Paris, 1845), pp. 102–3; Kinneir cited by Tozer,
Researches,
vol. 1, p. 150; Walker,
Through Macedonia,
p. 131; D. Warriner, ed.,
Contrasts in Emerging Societies: Readings in the Social and Economic History of South-Eastern Europe in the Nineteenth Century
(London, 1965), p. 242; J. Baker,
Turkey
(New York, 1877), p. 389; the best study is B. Gounaris,
Steam over Macedonia, 1870–1912: Socio-Economic Change
and the Railway Factor
(Boulder, Colo., 1993), esp. pp. 71–74.

9. J. C. Wagner,
Delineatio provinciarum pannoniae et imperii turcici in Oriente
(Augsburg, 1684), pp. 119–20; R. Halsband, ed.,
The Complete Letters of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu,
vol. 1,
1708–1720
(Oxford, 1965), p. 340; K. Mihailovic, Memoirs of a Janissary, trans. B. Stulz (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1975), p. 163; E. S. Forster, ed., The Turkish Letters of
Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq
(Oxford, 1927), p. 108.

10. Tietz, St. Petersburgh; J. K. Vasdravellis, Klephts, Armatoles and Pirates in
Macedonia during the Rule of the Turks (1627–1821)
(Thessaloniki, 1975), pp. 98–100.

11.
Messager d’Athenes,
June 9, 1925.

12. K. Karpat, Ottoman Population, 1830–1914 (Madison, Wisc., 1985), pp. 4–5, 22–23; J. Lampe and M. Jackson, Balkan Economic History, 1550–1950 (Bloomington, Ind., 1982), p. 281; Ramberti, in L. Villari,
The Republic of Ragusa: An Episode of the Turkish Conquest
(London, 1904); W. Lithgow, Rare Adventures and Painefull Peregrinations (1632; reprint, London, 1928), p. 105.

13. On returning Christians, see H. Lowry, “
The Island of Limnos: A Case Study on the Continuity of Byzantine Forms under Ottoman Rule
,” in H. Lowry, Studies in Defterology (Istanbul, 1992), pp. 181–209.

14.
The Negotiations of Sir Thomas Roe in His Embassy to the Ottoman Porte
from the Year 1621 to 1628 Inclusive . . .
(London, 1740), p. 427; K. Kostis, Ston kairo tis panolis (Heraklion, Greece, 1995); D. Panzac,
La Peste dans l’Empire ottoman, 1700–1850
(Louvain, Belgium, 1985), esp. pp. 64–66.

15. The best account is M. Todorova, “
Les Balkans
” in J.-P. Bardet and J. Dupaquier, eds.,
Histoire des populations de l’Europe
(Paris, 1998), vol. 2, pp. 465–87; long-run population figures in C. McEvedy and R. Jones,
Atlas of World Population History
(London, 1978), pp. 19, 95–99, 110–115. On Balkan populations, see also for the nineteenth century M. Palairet,
The Balkan Economies, c. 1800–1914: Evolution
without Development
(Cambridge, 1997), pp. 6–14; H. Inalcik and D. Quataert, eds.,
An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire,
1300–1914
(Cambridge, 1994), p. 652; Royal Institute of International Affairs,
Southeastern Europe
(London, 1940), p. 85.

16. Warriner, Contrasts, p. 142; K. Hitchins, The Romanians, 1774–1866 (Oxford, 1996), p. 173.

17. A. Wace and M. Thompson,
The Nomads of the Balkans
(London, 1914), p. 33.

18. A. Goff and H. A. Fawcett,
Macedonia: A Plea for the Primitive
(London, 1921), pp. xiv–xv, 8.

19. Stoianovich,
Balkan Worlds,
pp. 248–49; on Wallachian hovels, see Tietz,
St. Petersburgh,
p. 78; on Bulgarian huts, see H. Pernot, ed.,
Voyage en Turquie et en Grece de Robert de Dreux
(Paris, 1925), p. 95. My thanks to Heath Lowry for information about Ottoman clocks.

20. T. Stoianovich, “Land Tenure and Related Sectors of the Balkan Economy,” in T. Stoianovich,
Between East and West: The Balkan and
Mediterranean Worlds (New Rochelle, N.Y., 1992), vol. 1, pp. 1–15.

21. P. Sugar, “
The Least Affected Social Group in the Ottoman Balkans: The Peasantry
,” in S. Vryonis, ed., Byzantine Studies: Essays on the
Slavic World and the Eleventh Century
(New York, 1992), pp. 77–87.

22. B. McGowan,
Economic Life in Ottoman Europe: Taxation, Trade and the
Struggle for Land, 1600–1800 (Cambridge, 1981), pp. 54–55.

23. For Ottoman continuation of Byzantine land taxes, see S. Vryonis, “
Byzantium and Islam: Seventh–Seventeenth Century
,” in
Byzantine
Studies IX: pp. 234–35; Inalcik and Quataert, Economic and Social His
tory,
p. 159.

24. Cited by S. Fischer-Galati, ed.,
Man, State and Society in East European History
(New York, 1970), p. 73.

25. See G. Veinstein, “On the Ciftlik Debate,” in C. Keydar and F. Tabak, eds.,
Landholding and Commercial Agriculture in the Middle East
(Albany, N.Y., 1991), pp. 35–57; T. Stoianovich, “Balkan Peasants, Landlords and the Ottoman State,” in op. cit., pp. 15–39; Inalcik and Quataert,
Economic and Social History,
p. 45; for a Greek Christian case, see G. Veinstein, “Le Patrimoine foncier de Panayote Benakis, Kocabasi de Kalamata,” in G. Veinstein,
Etat et société dans l’Empire ottoman,
XVIe–XVIIIe siècles (Aldershot, Eng., 1994), vol. 3, pp. 211–33.

26. J. R. McNeill,
The Mountains of the Mediterranean World: An Environmental History
(Cambridge, 1992), pp. 89–90; M. E. Durham,
Some
Tribal Origins, Laws and Customs of the Balkans
(London, 1928), p. 273.

27. Kantemir quoted in Warriner,
Contrasts,
p. 128; B. Brue,
Journal de la
campagne que le Grand Vezir Ali Pacha a faite en 1715 pour la conquete de la
Morée
(Paris, 1870), p. 38.

28. J. Koliopoulos,
Brigands with a Cause: Brigandage and Irredentism in
Modern Greece, 1821–1912
(Oxford, 1987), p. 239; D. Urquhart,
The
Spirit of the East, Illustrated in a Journal of Travels through Roumeli during an Eventful Period
(London, 1838), vol. 2, p. 150.

29. Urquhart, Spirit of the East, vol. 2, pp. 157, 162–63.

30. McGowan,
Economic Life,
p. 65; F. Adanir, “
Tradition and Rural Change in Southeastern Europe during Ottoman Rule
,” in D. Chirot, ed.,
The Origins of Backwardness in Eastern Europe
(Berkeley, 1989), p. 135.

31. Leake cited in Inalcik and Quataert,
Economic and Social History,
p. 689.

32. H. Lowry, “
From Lesser Wars to the Mightiest War: The Ottoman Conquest and Transformation of Byzantine Urban Centers in the Fifteenth Century,
” in Lowry, Studies in Defterology, pp. 47–65.