Divided we Fail (35 page)

37
. Irons,
Jim Crow's Children
, 241.

38
. “U.S. Court Orders Desegregation Plan for 3 School Districts in Jefferson County,”
Louisville Times
, December 28, 1973.

39
. James Nolan, “Judge Orders City and County to Combine Their School Desegregation Plans by Tuesday,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, July 20, 1974.

40
. John Finley, “Judge's Decision for a ‘Plan X' Surprises Few,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, July 20, 1974.

41
. James Nolan, “Louisville-Area School Plan Canceled as Most Cross-district Busing Barred,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, July 26, 1974; Milliken v. Bradley, 418 US 717 (1974),
http://supreme.justia.com/
.

42
. Irons,
Jim Crow
's
Children
, 242–49.

43
. “Any Busing Here Is Stalled Past Oct. 14,”
Louisville Times
, August 9, 1974.

44
. Albert Sehlstedt Jr., “Ford Bid in 1976 Probable; Education Bill, with Busing Curb, Is Signed,”
Baltimore Sun
, August 22, 1974.

45
. Orfield, “Congress,” 131; 133–34.

46
. Ronald P. Formisano,
Boston against Busing: Race, Class, and Ethnicity in the 1960s and 1970s
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991); “This Is Testing Our Sense of Humid,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, July 20, 1974.

47
. James Nolan, “Racial Balance of City's Schools Tips to Blacks,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, October 17, 1972; Edward Bennett, “City Schools May Get Desegregation Order,”
Louisville Times
, June 28, 1971; “Pupils in Integrated Schools Gain Here,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, October 2, 1957.

48
. David McGinty, “Local Desegregation Battle to Resume,”
Louisville Times
, October 14, 1974.

49
. Dennis Polite, “Desegregation Order to Be Appealed,”
Louisville Times
, January 7, 1975.

50
. David McGinty, “Judge Gordon to Draft Own Plan to Desegregate Schools,”
Louisville Times
, July 18, 1975; David McGinty, “Gordon's Integration Plan Will Bus 23,000,”
Louisville Times
, July 23, 1975.

51
. “Justice Blackmun Denies SOCS Attorneys' Plea to Delay Busing Order,”
Louisville Times
, September 4, 1975; Linda Stahl, “Powell Is Asked to Stay Order on School Busing,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, August 29, 1975.

52
. Larry Werner, “Hotline: Volunteers Answer Questions on Busing,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, July 31, 1975.

53
. Mike Brown, “As the ‘General' of a Small Army, There Are Few Free Moments for . . . an Antibusing Leader,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, September 13, 1975.

54
. Larry Werner and John Filiatreau, “85 White Students State ‘Sit-in,' ”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, November 7, 1975.

55
. Formisano,
Boston Against Busing
, 114, 115, 143, 150, 153.

56
. Jim Adams, “Concerned Parents Rally Canceled for Prayer Vigil,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, August 18, 1975; Jim Adams, “Downtown Protest Attracts 2,500,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, September 5, 1975.

Chapter 12

1
. John Flynn, “ ‘The South End Is a Feeling, Not a Place,' ”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, September 14, 1975; Dick Kaukas, “Women Stage Okolona March against Busing,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, October 10, 1975.

2
. Jim Adams, “Downtown Protest Attracts 2,500,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, September 5, 1975.

3
. “Protesters Delay Buses at Fairdale,”
Louisville Times
, September 5, 1975.

4
. “Dozens Hurt, 192 Arrested in Riots,”
Louisville Times
, September 6, 1975.

5
. Paul Bulleit, “Slingshot Defendant Acquitted,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, March 31, 1976.

6
. “Ballard High Principal Has Suspended 20 Black Students Since Monday,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, September 11, 1975.

7
. “Rumor of Rapes False, Six School Principals Say,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, September 11, 1975.

8
. “How Did the Black Community Handle First Seven Days of School Desegregation?”
Louisville Defender
, September 11, 1975.

9
. Ben Johnson, “Small Woman Shouts Loudly on Behalf of Black Students,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, September 5, 1975.

10
. Johnson and Quay Glass, “Western Louisville: What Does It Think of Busing?”
Louisville
Courier-Journal
, September 27, 1975.

11
. “Black Students Say the Hate Was Unexpected,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, September 11, 1975.

12
. Ira Simmons, “The Whitening of Central: Black Students Feel It Isn't ‘Their' School Anymore,”
Louisville Times
, 1976.

13
. Thelma Cayne Tilford-Weathers,
A History of Louisville Central High School, 1882–1982
(Louisville, KY: Central High School Alumni Association, 1982), 34.

14
. “Central Was All We Had,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, June 27, 1982; Tilford-Weathers,
A History of Louisville Central High School
, 49.

15
. Simmons, “The Whitening of Central.”

16
. W. E. B. Du Bois,
The Souls of Black Folk
(New York: Barnes and Nobles Classics, 2005), 9.

17
. Douglas Massey and Susan Denton,
American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 4, 59.

18
. Anti-Discrimination Center, Dynamic Census Mapping,
http://www.antibiaslaw.com/
.

19
. Massey and Denton,
American Apartheid
, 60–82.

20
. Linda Stahl, “Private Schools Are Losing Students; Reasons Include New Faith in Public Schools,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, August 25, 1985.

21
. “Changes in Racial Attitudes in Jefferson County,”
Louisville Times
, May 12, 1980.

22
. Photo caption,
Louisville Times
, May 16, 1980.

23
. Linda Raymond, “Test-Score Trends: Blacks Gain, Whites Hold Steady,”
Louisville Times
, May 13, 1980.

24
. Frank Knorr, ed., “Fulfilling the Letter and Spirit of the Law: Desegregation of the Nation's Public Schools” (Washington, DC: US Commission on Civil Rights August 1976), 83, 161,
http://www.eric.ed.gov/
.

Chapter 13

1
. Elinor J. Brecher and Leslie Ellis, “Grayson Plans Counterattack in Bid to Keep Job,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, July 24, 1980; “Grayson Sues Board, Alleging Conspiracy, Attempted Bribery,”
Louisville Times
, July 24, 1980.

2
. “Chronology of the Grayson Controversy,”
Louisville-Times
, July 25, 1980.

3
. Elinor J. Brecher, “School Officials Considering Busing of Whites in More Grades,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, November 14, 1979.

4
. Elinor J. Brecher, “Board Approves Voluntary Busing Plan amid Criticism,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, November 27, 1979.

5
. “Six Men Who Would Be Superintendent Tell Why—And How,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, January 19, 1981.

6
. “ ‘Low-Income Pupils Threaten Education of Others,' Gamboa Says,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, January 23, 1981.

7
. “Gamboa Rapped for Linking Poverty, Pupil Attitudes,”
Louisville Times
, January 23, 1981; “Black Leaders Want Gamboa, DeRuzzo Out,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, January 27, 1981.

8
. “Californian Ingwerson Is Persuasive and Poised,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, February 24, 1981.

9
. Details of Donald Ingwerson's life from author interview with Ingwerson, February 11, 2010; “Californian Ingwerson”; “Job Pressures May Have Led to Departure,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, March 5, 1993.

10
. Kristina Steward Ward, “The Outsider,”
Vogue
, December 2007; multiple articles in the
Orange County Register
, e.g., “Yorba Linda Rejects for Buddhist Temple,”
Orange County Register
, March 6, 1997.

11
. Rosalva Hernandez, “Ruling on Census Raises Few Eyebrows in County,”
Orange County Register
, March 21, 1996.

12
. Daniel Rubin and Leslie Scanlon, “Both Races Show Gains on Test, but an Analysis Shows
an Achievement Gap,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, August 25, 1985.

13
. Daniel Rubin, “Turmoil of Early Years Is Over, but Suspensions Are Still Causing Concern,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, August 25, 1985.

14
. Daniel Rubin, “Both Blacks and Whites Are Missing Fewer Classes and Dropping Out Less Often,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, August 25, 1985.

15
. Dianne Aprile, “Troubled Waters Calm Now at Fairdale and Shawnee,”
Louisville Times
, May 14, 1980.

16
. Rubin, “Turmoil of Early Years.”

17
. Linda Stahl, “Integration Order Changed to Aid ‘Advance' Pupils,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, August 16, 1975; Leslie Scanlon and Daniel Rubin, “Systemwide Race Ratios Aren't Holding Up in Special Programs and Tough Courses Like Physics,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, August 25, 1985.

18
. Jeannie Oakes,
Keeping Track: How Schools Structure Inequality
(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005), 278; “The History of Gifted and Talented Education,” National Association of Gifted Children,
http://www.nagc.org/
; Stephen J. Caldas and Carl L. Bankston,
Forced to Fail: The Paradox of School Desegregation
(Westport, CT: Praeger, 2005); Kenneth J. Meier, Joseph Steward, and Robert E. England,
Race, Class and Education: The Politics of Second-Generation Discrimination
(Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989), 81–99.

19
. Michael Days and Mervin Aubespin, “Blacks See Their Hopes on Busing Swept Aside,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, May 4, 1981.

20
. Michael Wines, “Busing: 5 Years Later,”
Louisville Times
, May 12, 1980; Linda Stahl, “Private Schools Are Losing Students,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, August 25, 1985.

21
. Wines, “Busing: 5 Years Later.”

22
. Days, “Blacks See Their Hopes.”

23
. Bob Deitel, “Central High's Enrollment Drop Underscores Problem, Officials Say,”
Louisville Times
, October 19, 1983.

24
. Saundra Keyes, “Bused Students Seek More Medical Transfers,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, September 26, 1983.

25
. Days, “Blacks See Their Hopes.”

26
. Dianne Aprile, “Pupils Who Live It Say Prejudices Fading,”
Louisville Times
, May 16, 1980.

27
. Aprile, “Troubled Waters.”

28
. Wines, “Busing: 5 Years Later.”

29
. Saundra Keyes, “Programs, No Numbers, May Be Key to Busing Plan,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, November 26, 1983.

30
. Leslie Scanlon, “Many Doubt That Central Would Attract East End Students,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, January 21, 1984.

31
. National Commission on Excellence in Education,
A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform
, (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1983).

32
. George H. Gallup and Stanley Elam, “The 13th Annual Gallup Poll of the Public's Attitudes toward the Public Schools,”
Phi Delta Kappan
63, no. 1 (1981).

33
. “For the Record: President Reagan, Responding to Reporters' Questions during a White House News Conference on May 17,”
Education Week
, May 25, 1983.

34
. Katherine Magnuson and Jane Waldfogel, eds.,
Steady Gains and Stalled Progress
(New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2008).

35
. David Grissmer, Ann Flanagan, and Stephanie Williamson, “Why Did the Gap Narrow in the 1970s and 1980s?” in
The Black-White Test Score Gap
, Christopher Jencks and Meredith Philips, eds. (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1998), 195.

36
. Ibid.

Chapter 14

1
. Details of Carman Weathers's life from author interviews with Weathers.

2
. Roscoe Nance, “Jackson State Celebrates 100 Years of Football,” Southwestern Athletic Conference, November 7, 2011,
databaseFootball.com
.

3
. Khristopher Brooks, phone interview with Marshall Gray, chairman of the Crispus Attucks Community Association, January 23, 2012,
http://attucks.org
.

4
. James Nolan, “Pupil Assignments Still to Be Made,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, July 24, 1974.

5
. Greg Toppo, “Thousands of Black Teachers Lost Jobs,”
USA Today
, April 28, 2004.

6
. Michael Fultz, “The Displacement of Black Educators Post-
Brown:
An Overview and Analysis,”
History of Education Quarterly
44, no. 1 (2004): 14.