Divided we Fail (33 page)

11
. Maude Brown Porter: author interviews with Central alumni from that era; Everett J. Mitchel II, “The Enforcer: Diminutive Teacher Was a Strict, No-Nonsense Disciplinarian,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, February 10, 1987.

12
. Central sports: Tilford-Weathers,
A History of Louisville Central High School
, 27–39.

13
. Thanksgiving games from interviews with alumni; Central song lyrics: Tilford-Weathers,
A History of Louisville Central High School
, 58–59.

14
. Municipal College: “African American Education,” in Kleber,
Encyclopedia of Louisville
, 13.

15
. Jessie Halladay, “1965 Louisville Murder Solved without Arrest: Cold Case of Alberta Jones Finally Has a Suspect, but No Trial,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, May 4, 2010; “Alberta O. Jones,” Notable African Americans Database, University of Kentucky,
http://www.uky.edu/
.

Chapter 6

1
. Johnson in college: Wade Hall,
The Rest of the Dream: The Black Odyssey of Lyman Johnson
(Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1988), 55–56.

2
. Ibid., 59.

3
. Adam Fairclough,
A Class of Their Own: Black Teachers in the Segregated South
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 311; “Living Legend” lectures at University of Louisville, January 22, 1990, Lyman Johnson Papers, University of Louisville Library.

4
. Fairclough,
Class of Their Own
, 309.

5
. Ibid., 310, 226.

6
. Richard Kluger,
Simple Justice: The History of
Brown v. Board of Education
and Black America's Struggle for Equality
(New York: Vintage Books, 2004), 91.

7
. Ibid., 108–9.

8
. Ibid., 100, 194–215.

9
. Ibid., 258, 274, 290–97.

10
. Hall,
Rest of the Dream
, 154–55; Richard Wilson, “Year-long Battle in 1949 Paved Way for Integration of Kentucky's Universities,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, February 2, 1977.

11
. Catherine Fosl,
Subversive Southerner: Anne Braden and the Struggle for Racial Justice in the Cold War South
(New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), 86.

12
. Ibid., 4, 13, 57–80.

13
. George C. Wright,
A History of Blacks in Kentucky
, vol. 2,
In Pursuit of Equality, 1890–1980
(Frankfort, KY: Kentucky Historical Society, 1992), 158.

14
. Fosl,
Subversive Southerner
, 103–33.

15.
Ibid., 136–37.

16
. Tracy E. K'Meyer,
Civil Rights in the Gateway to the South
(Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2009), 62–63, 137.

17
. Ibid., 64; Fosl,
Subversive Southerner
, 139.

18
. Fosl,
Subversive Southerner
, 139–41.

Chapter 7

1
. Tracy E. K'Meyer,
Civil Rights in the Gateway to the South
(Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2009), 35.

2
. Wade Hall,
The Rest of the Dream: The Black Odyssey of Lyman Johnson
(Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1988), 154.

3
. Richard Kluger,
Simple Justice: The History of
Brown v. Board of Education
and Black
America's Struggle for Equality
(New York: Vintage Books, 2004), 293–94.

4
. For more detail on the five cases, see Kluger,
Simple Justice
.

5
. Ibid., 574.

6
. For details on
Brown II
, see ibid., 585–619.

7
. Ibid., 659.

8
. Charles Wollenberg, “
Mendez v. Westminster:
Race, Nationality and Segregation in California Schools,”
California Historical Quarterly
53, no. 4 (Winter 1974): 317–32.

9
. Kluger,
Simple Justice
, 210, 704.

10
. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 US 483 (1954); Jack M. Balkin,
What
Brown v. Board of Education
Should Have Said
(New York: New York University Press, 2001), 40; Kluger,
Simple Justice
, 714.

11
. Kluger,
Simple Justice
, 714–16.

12
. Balkin,
What
Brown, 48.

13
. Ibid., 11; James T. Patterson, Brown v. Board of Education:
A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 68.

14
. Balkin,
What
Brown, 11–13, 55–56.

15
. Ibid., 64–68.

16
. Catherine Fosl,
Subversive Southerner: Anne Braden and the Struggle for Racial Justice in the Cold War South
(New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), 141–55.

17
. Hall,
Rest of the Dream
, 142.

18
. Fosl,
Subversive Southerner
, 151, 155–73, 175–85, 194–95.

19
. Adam Fairclough,
A Class of Their Own: Black Teachers in the Segregated South
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 4–5, 374–75; David S. Cecelski,
Along Freedom Road: Hyde County, North Carolina and the Fate of Black Schools in the South
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994), 9–10.

20
. Michael Murakami, “Desegregation,” in
Public Opinion and Constitutional Controversy
, Nathan Persily et al., eds. (NY: Oxford University Press, 2008), 23.

21
. Lee Sigelman and Susan Welch,
Black Americans' Views of Racial Inequality: The Dream Deferred
(NY: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 122.

22
. Kluger,
Simple Justice
, 166.

23
. W. E. B. Du Bois, “Does the Negro Need Separate Schools?”
Journal of Negro Education 4
, no. 3 (1935): 328–35.

24
. Fairclough,
Class of Their Own
, 358.

25
. Details of the Hyde County boycott from Cecelski,
Along Freedom Road
.

26
. Fight for new building from Thelma Cayne Tilford-Weathers,
A History of Louisville Central High School, 1882–1982
(Louisville, KY: Central High School Alumni Association, 1982), 16–17.

27
. Details about Wilson from Hall,
Rest of the Dream
, 133; author interview with Wilson's daughter, Susie Guess, November 4, 2009.

28
. Tilford-Weathers,
A History;
Lourena Eaton, “Central High, ‘South's Finest,' Nearly Ready,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, June 29, 1952.

29
. Eaton, “Central High.”

Chapter 8

1
. Details of first day of integration: Omer Carmichael and Weldon James,
The Louisville Story
(New York: Simon and Schuster, 1957); Male High School: “Male High School Gets Its Old Name Back; Integration Plans Also Adopted,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
(no date); “Louisville Male High School,” in
The Encyclopedia of Louisville
, John E. Kleber, ed. (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2000), 558.

2
. Peter Irons,
Jim Crow's Children: The Broken Promise of the
Brown
Decision
(New York: Penguin Books, 2002), 165–66, 177.

3
. Details of Carmichael's life from Carmichael,
Louisville Story
.

4
. Tracy E. K'Meyer,
Civil Rights in the Gateway to the South
(Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2009), 47.

5
. Carmichael,
Louisville Story
.

6
. Kleber,
Encyclopedia of Louisville
, xxix; also see urban renewal in chapter 9.

7
. K'Meyer,
Gateway
, 53.

8
. Ibid., 54.

9
. “Parkland Area Redistricting Asked in Parents' Petition,”
Louisville Times
, April 3, 1956.

10
. Irons,
Jim Crow's Children
, 165; John D. Mack, “Crowd Turns Back Negroes,”
New York Times
, September 11, 1956; K'Meyer,
Gateway
, 53.

11
. Brown v. Board of Education, 349 US 294 (1955).

12
. Richard Kluger,
Simple Justice: The History of
Brown v. Board of Education
and Black America's Struggle for Equality
(New York: Vintage Books, 2004), 755; Kenneth O'Reilly, “Racial Integration: The Battle General Eisenhower Chose Not to Fight,”
Journal of Blacks in Higher Education
18 (Winter 1997–98): 110–19; “Ike Non-committal on GOP Civil Rights Plank,”
Chicago Daily Defender
, August 9, 1956; “Ike Hedges on School Action,”
Chicago Daily Defender
, September 6, 1956.

13
. See, for example, Josephine Ripley, “President Hopeful of Suez Solution,”
Christian Science Monitor
, August 8, 1956; Joseph A. Loftus, “The Farm Problem,”
New York Times
, September 10, 1955; “GOP's Farm Belt Support Has Dropped Sharply Since 1952, Poll Indicates,”
Washington Post
, September 25, 1956.

14
. Bradford Jacobs, “Adlai Chides Ike for Stand on Race Issue,”
Baltimore Sun
, September 12, 1956.

15
. Carmichael and Eisenhower: “Transcript of Eisenhower's News Conference on Foreign and Domestic Affairs,”
New York Times
, September 12, 1956; Bess Furman, “President Doubts Hearing Harms Capital Integration,”
New York Times
, September 21, 1956; Anthony Lewis, “President Scores Rioting in South,”
New York Times
, September 12, 1956; “Omer Carmichael Is Dead at 66; Head of Schools in Louisville,”
New York Times
, January 10, 1960, 86; “Education: How to Integrate,”
Time
, September 24, 1956; “Louisville's Integrator: Omer Carmichael,”
New York Times
, September 10, 1956.

16
. Carmichael,
Louisville Story
; K'Meyer,
Gateway
, 56.

17
. History of white resistance to
Brown v. Board of Education
, including use of “school choice” to evade integration, from Davison M. Douglas,
Reading
,
Writing and Race: The Desegregation of the Charlotte Schools
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995); Adam Fairclough,
A Class of Their Own: Black Teachers in the Segregated South
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007); James T. Patterson, “Southern Whites Fight Back,” in Brown v. Board of Education:
A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy
(NY: Oxford University Press, 2001).

18
. Thelma Cayne Tilford-Weathers,
A History of Louisville Central High School, 1882–1982
(Louisville, KY: Central High School Alumni Association, 1982),, 46.

19
. Irons,
Jim Crow's Children
, 188–89.

20
. Taylor Branch,
Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–1963
(New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988).

21
. “Negro's Fight Must Be Nonviolent, King Says,”
Louisville Times
, April 19, 1961.

22
. “40 Negro Sit-inners Arrested Downtown,”
Louisville Times
, April 19, 1961.

23
. Branch,
Parting the Waters
, 271–84.

24
. K'Meyer,
Gateway
, 87–88; Wade Hall,
The Rest of the Dream: The Black Odyssey of Lyman Johnson
(Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1988), 134–35.

25
. Hall,
Rest of the Dream
, 134–35; “Negroes Ask Progress on Integration,”
Louisville Times
, February 28, 1961.

26
. K'Meyer,
Gateway
, 81.

27
. Hall,
Rest of the Dream
, 137–38.

28
. F. W. Woolsey, “The Lunch-counter Revolution,”
Louisville Courier-Journal Magazine
,
March 30, 1980.

29
. K'Meyer,
Gateway
, 105.

30
. Jim Morrissey, “Integration Timetable,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, June 30, 1963.

31
. Ibid.; K'Meyer,
Gateway
, 107–10.

32
. “Valley Station,” in Kleber,
Encyclopedia of Louisville
, 909.

33
. Woolsey, “Lunch-counter Revolution.”

Chapter 9

1
. Margaret Merrick, “Public Housing,” in
The Encyclopedia of Louisville
, John E. Kleber, ed. (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2000), 734.

2
. Details of Riccardo X's life from author interviews with Riccardo X.

3
. Gerald Henry, “Renewal Affects 5 Pct. Of City; More to Come?”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, February 19, 1967.

4
. “Louisvillians Invited to View City Slums,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, March 20, 1957.

5
. “Little Africa,” in Kleber,
Encyclopedia of Louisville
, 523.

6
. “Louisvillians Invited”; Redevelopment Termed Urgent,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, June 14, 1959.

7
. Sheldon Shafer, “Changed City Is Left Behind by Chief of Urban Renewal,”
Louisville Courier-Journal
, April 2, 1978.

8
. Kenneth Jackson,
Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 210–13.

9
. Ibid., 195–215; Douglas Massey and Susan Denton,
American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 54–55.