Blowback (57 page)

26
.

Poppe interview, October 26, 1984; see also Poppe, op. cit., pp. 199–200.

27
.

For a brief official biography on Poppe, see
Directory of American Scholars
, 1974 edition, p. 368, and
The Writers Directory, 1982–1984
, p. 754, which discusses Poppe's literary accomplishments. A Russian-language interview with Poppe concerning his career is available at the Hoover Institution at Stanford University. See also Arista Maria Cirtautas, “Nicholas Poppe, a Bibliography of Publications from 1924 to 1977,”
Parerga
(Seattle, Wash.: University of Washington, Institute for Comparative and Foreign Area Studies, 1977), for an extensive bibliography of Poppe's work, which is unfortunately silent on Poppe's production for the SS, British, and American intelligence agencies. Poppe's own account is in Poppe, op. cit., p. 199ff.

28
.

For Poppe's testimony on Owen Lattimore, see “Institute of Pacific Relations,”
Hearings before the Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of
the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws
, U.S. Senate, 82nd Congress, February 12, 1952, pp. 2691–2707, 2724–31, with quoted passages on pp. 2725–26. For overviews of Lattimore case, see Oshinsky, op. cit., p. 136ff., and Caute, op. cit., p. 317ff. See also C. P. Trussell, “Senate Unit Calls Lattimore Agent of Red Conspiracy,”
New York Times
, July 3, 1952, p. 1. For Poppe's statements concerning Lattimore's role in opposing Poppe's immigration, see Poppe, op. cit., pp. 191, 197, and 214–16.

29
.

Poppe interview, December 4, 1984.

30
.

Ibid. For points discussed in footnote,
1985 GAO Report
, p. 35, and U.S. Department of Justice Criminal Division correspondence re: FOIA request CRM-11132-F, January 9, 1986.

31
.

“Axis Supporters Enlisted by U.S. in Postwar Role,”
New York Times
, June 20, 1982.

32
.

Joyce memo: “Robert Joyce to Walworth Barbour,” 875.00/5–1249, May 12, 1949 (top secret), RG 59, NA. Background information on Robert Joyce may be found in his obituary, which appeared in the
Washington Post
, February 10, 1984.

On character of Albanian collaboration, see OSS R&A report L38836, “Albania: Political and Internal Conditions,” July 10, 1944 (secret), which states in part that “Xhafer Deva, Rexhep Mitrovic and Midhat Frasheri are with the Germans.… Anti-Semitic measures are being adopted now,” RG 226, NA. See also “Axis Supporters Enlisted by U.S. in Postwar Role,” loc. cit., and Hilberg, op. cit., pp. 451 and 451n.

33
.

Dosti comment: “Axis Supporters Enlisted by U.S. in Postwar Role,” loc. cit. On Assembly of Captive European Nations funding by CIA through Radio Free Europe: Price, op. cit., pp. CRS 9–10, and see Chapter 1, source note 9, for further documentation. On Philby's role: Bruce Page et al.,
The Philby Conspiracy
(New York: Signet, 1969), pp. 177–89, and Kim Philby,
My Silent War
(New York, Ballantine, 1983), pp. 155–65.

1
.

On origins of RFE and RL, see Mickelson, op. cit., pp. 11–22, 59–75; David Wise and Thomas Ross,
The Invisible Government
(New York: Vintage/Random House, 1964), p. 326ff.; Marchetti and Marks, op. cit., pp. 174–78; and Cord Meyer,
Facing Reality
(New York: Harper & Row, 1980), pp. 110–38. On the CIA's controlling role in RFE and RL throughout the cold war, see also John Crewdson and Joseph Treaster, “Worldwide Propaganda Network Built by the CIA,”
New York Times
, December 26, 1977, p. 1; “Defector Had Job Tied to CIA,”
Washington Post
, September 15, 1966; “Help for Radio Free Europe,”
Washington Post
, February 5, 1966; “CIA Cash Linked to Broadcasts,”
Washington Post
, March 12, 1970; “Ban Sought on CIA Aid for Radio Free Europe,”
New York Times
, January 24, 1971; Michael Getler, “CIA Runs Radio Free Europe, Ex-Employee Says in Prague,”
Washington Post
, January 31, 1976.

2
.

Mickelson, op. cit., pp. 14–17. Mickelson identifies the source of the first $2 million of National Committee for a Free Europe funds (plus printing presses, propaganda balloons, etc.) as Frank Wisner's OPC, which in turn had inherited that “nest egg,” as Mickelson puts it, from the Special Projects Group (SPG),
the institutional umbrella for the $10 million in U.S. clandestine funding allocated for manipulation of the Italian election. Mickelson does not discuss where the SPG got its funds, however. For details on that point, see Chapter Seven, source note 20.

3
.

For Carey comment, see
New York Herald Tribune
, January 29, 1950, and Richard Boyer and Herbert Morais,
Labor's Untold Story
(New York: United Electrical Radio & Machine Workers of America Publishing Division, 1973), p. 362. On Kennan's role in creating the NCFE board, see Mickelson, op. cit., pp. 14–15. On early NCFE board members, see Price, op cit., p. CRS-7, and National Committee for a Free Europe,
President's Report for the Year 1954
(New York: National Committee for a Free Europe, 1954). The most complete presentation of backgrounds and careers of early NCFE directors available at present is in Collins, op. cit., p. 362ff. Mickelson offers a useful table of key NCFE and American Committee for Liberation personalities on p. 257ff. For roles of Yarrow, Grace, and Heinz, see Comptroller General of the United States,
U.S. Government Monies Provided to Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty
, General Accounting Office Report No. 72–0501, (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1972) pp. 79–81 and 109.

4
.

Mickelson, op. cit, pp. 18, 20.

5
.

James Burnham,
Containment or Liberation?
(New York: John Day Co., 1953), p. 188. For Burnham's relationship with OPC, see Smith,
OSS
, p. 367. For official, but sanitized, funding estimates, see also Comptroller General of the United States,
U.S. Government Monies Provided to Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty
, loc. cit.

6
.

The history of the various corporate covers employed by the OPC and the CIA to conceal their relationship with RFE, RL, and other psychological warfare programs is complex.

The corporate parent of the agency's Eastern European broadcasting arm, for example, has variously been called the Committee for a Free Europe (1948–1949); the National Committee for a Free Europe (1949–1954); the Free Europe Committee, Inc. (1954–1976); and, finally, RFE/RL, Inc. (1976– ). Each of these companies had a broadcasting division named Radio Free Europe (circa 1950– ).

The CIA's parallel effort aimed at the USSR has included the American Institute for the Study of the USSR (1950); Institute for the Study of the History and Culture of the Soviet Union (1950); American Committee for the Freedom of the Peoples of the USSR (1951); American Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia, Inc. (1951–1953); and American Committee for Liberation from Bolshevism, also often known as AMCOMLIB (1953–1956). The latter had officially changed its name to Radio Liberation, Inc. by 1963, although correspondence from 1956 to 1963 indicates that the parent company also did business as AMCOMLIB, Inc. during that time. Next came the Radio Liberty Committee (1963–1976). The radio broadcasting arm of this operation was variously known as the Radio Station of the Coordinating Center of Anti-Bolshevik Struggle (1953); Radio Liberation from Bolshevism (1953–1956); Radio Liberation (1956–1963); and Radio Liberty (1963– ).

7
.

On clandestine U.S. funding for foreign governments' exile programs, see “U.S. Policy on Defectors, Escapees and Refugees from Communist Areas,” NSC 5706 (secret), February 13, 1957, p. 6, a sanitized version of which is available in RG 273, NA, Washington, D.C. For $100 million estimate, see
U.S. Government Monies Provided to Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty
, loc. cit. On the CIA's use of RFE/RL covers to pass funds to exile committees, see Price, op. cit., p. CRS-1 (for CIA funding of RFE) and p.CRS-10 (for RFE funding of the ACEN). See also NCFE,
President's Report for the Year 1954
, pp. 18–21, for a surprisingly frank presentation of the committee's Division of Exile Relations' work with the ACEN, International Peasant Union, Christian Democratic Union of Central Europe, and others.

8
.

For source material on CIA funding of exile programs, see source note 7, above. On clandestine CIA funding of the extreme-right Paris Bloc of the Anti-Bolshevik Bloc of Nations (ABN) exile organization, see A. Tchilingarian, “The American Committee and the Struggle Against Bolshevism,”
Armenian Review
(March 1955), p. 3ff., and Crewdson and Treaster, op. cit., p. 37, for agency funding of book by extreme right ABN leader Suzanne Labin. Although Labin worked closely with numerous outspoken Nazi collaborators and sympathizers in the leadership of ABN, there is no indication that she collaborated with or is sympathetic to Nazi Germany. For a more complete discussion of the dominant role of Nazi collaborators in the ABN, as well as their role in more moderate CIA-funded organizations, such as the ACEN and the exile committees, see Chapters Fifteen and Seventeen.

9
.

For an example of political controversy over the “left” tilt of some RFE/RL financed émigré associations, see Kurt Glaser's attack on the Council for a Free Czechoslovakia titled “The ‘Russia First' Boys in Radio Free Europe,”
National
Review
(February 1953). This article found its way into Immigration and Naturalization Service records as INS “Memorandum for File 56347 / 218,” May 6, 1953, retyped word for word by an unidentified investigator for the Subversive Alien Branch. That memo, in turn, led to a series of watch reports and even arrest warrants for pro-Zenkl Czech leaders. See INS classified file on Council for a Free Czechoslovakia, obtained by author via FOIA. On “liberal” tilt, see also Smith,
OSS
, p. 389, n. 63; Colby, op. cit.; and Kurt Glaser, “Psychological Warfare's Policy Feedback,”
Ukrainian Quarterly
(Spring 1953), p. ll0ff. For Durcansky group's view of Tiso regime, see Ferdinand Durcansky, “The West Shut Its Eyes to Tiso's Warning,”
ABN-Correspondence
, No. 5–6 (1953), p. 6.

10
.

On Nižňanský and Csonka, see Milan Blatny,
Les Proclamateurs de Fausse Libert
é (Bratislava: L'Institut d'Études de Journalisme, 1977), pp. 16 and 30. Kennan quote: George F. Kennan,
Memoirs 1950–1963
(Boston: Little, Brown, 1967), p. 96, hereinafter cited as
Kennan vol. II
.

11
.

On selection of name for American Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia, see Mickelson, op. cit., pp. 63–64 and 69. On origins of Radio Liberation generally, see Joseph Whelan,
Radio Liberty: A Study of Its Origins, Structure, Policy, Programming and Effectiveness
(Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, 1972); with discussion of evolution of American Committee for Liberation of the Peoples of Russia name at p. CRS-8ff. See also William Henry Chamberlin, “éMigré Anti-Soviet Enterprises and Splits,”
Russian Review
(April 1954), p. 91ff.

On founding of Vlassovite Komitet Osvobozhdeniia Narodov Rossii, or KONR (Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia), see Dallin,
German Rule
, pp. 628–36. George Fischer reports that the name KONR was originally chosen by Himmler himself.

12
.

Mickelson, op. cit., p. 69, n. 2. For a more detailed examination of internal émigré splits and conflicts through 1952, see Dvinov,
Politics of the Russian Emigration
, loc. cit., p. 285ff. For a Ukrainian nationalist point of view on this question, see, for example, “Court Justice or Political Vengeance,”
Ukrainian Quarterly
(Spring 1952), p. l0lff., which concerns a beating of a pro-American Committee for Liberation Ukrainian leader at the hands of three young nationalists.

13
.

Hans-Erich Volkmann, “Main Political Trends Among Russian éMigrés in Germany After World War II,” tr. RFE/RL,
Osteuropa
(April 1965), p. 20. The extremist Russian nationalist organization NTS reported a number of similar bombing incidents during the same period that it also blamed on the KGB or its predecessors, the MGB and MVD. On murders, kidnappings, and other violence against émigrés, see
MVD-MBG Campaign Against Russian éMigrés
(Frankfurt: Possev Publishing House, 1957), and Central Intelligence Agency, “Soviet Use of Assassination and Kidnapping,” February 17, 1966, FOIA review 8/76, Document No. 570–254 (obtained via FOIA), which is so similar in content to the Possev publication as to suggest derivative authorship. Possev served as the official publishing house of the extreme Russian nationalist group NTS for more than twenty years, although today it asserts it is an independent organization. On confessed Soviet double agents among the émigrés, see, for
example, Konstantin Cherezov,
NTS, a Spy Ring Unmasked
(Moscow: Soviet Committee for Cultural Relations with Russians Abroad, n.d. [1963?]). Cherezov was a leading NTS activist in Western Europe until he defected to the Soviets.

14
.

Mickelson, op. cit, p. 35, with quote from Poole on pp. 40–41.

15
.

Paul Blackstock,
Agents of Deceit
(Chicago: Quadrangle Press, 1966), pp. 141–46, with original publication of “Document” at
News from Behind the Iron Curtain
, magazine of NCFE (January 1952).

16
.

Blackstock,
Agents of Deceit
, p. 146.

17
.

CBS television,
60 Minutes
transcript for May 17, 1982, on Hazners, Stankievich.

On Trifa, see Jack Anderson, “RFE's Bishop Interview Is Probed,”
Washington Post
, February 20, 1980.