A History of the Middle East (82 page)

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Authors: Peter Mansfield,Nicolas Pelham

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Sykes, Sir Mark 178, 184

Sykes-Picot agreement 178, 179, 181, 184, 187, 204, 242

Syria 16–17, 22, 34, 153, 330, 416–17, 452; Hittites take over 3; and Aramaic 5; Egyptian rule in 10, 134; Byzantium rules in 13; conquest of 16, 21; Druze in 22; and Mamlukes 25–6; and Muhammed Ali 62; industry 62–3; restored to Ottoman rule 67; Christians persecuted 134; and Sykes-Picot agreement 178; French mandate 205, 206, 207, 225–6, 293; focus of Arab nationalism 206; independence 227, 254–5; education 230; and League of Arab States 257; Feisal expelled from 258; attempt to intervene in Palestine 267; political instability 269; joins military command system 293; ties with Soviet Union 293; becomes part of UAR 295; emergence of Assad 315; closure of pipeline across Syrian
territory 320; Sunnis in 331, 463, 476; antagonism to Iraq 338; and Front of Steadfastness 338; and Egyptian isolation 342; intervention in Lebanon 348, 351, 352, 353, 360, 362; US strategy ignores Syrian role in Middle East 352; supports Iran in Iraq-Iran war 373; response to invasion of Kuwait 378; and Israel 396, 399, 404–5; Shiites in 453;
gumlukiyya
475; forced out of Lebanon 490; nuclear facility destroyed 493–4; relations with Saudi Arabia 500; civil war 518

Syrian Desert 2, 3

Taft, William 168

Taif accords (1989) 361–2, 451

Talaat Bey 141, 148, 150–1, 152

Taliban 433, 437, 438

Tallal, King of Jordan 270

Talleyrand-Périgord, Charles Maurice de, Prince of Benevento 48

Tamerlane 27

Tanzimat
71–3, 77, 81, 87, 90, 130, 134, 135, 138, 141, 162, 194

Tehran 165, 168, 239, 253, 455

Tel el-Kebir, battle of 108

television 453–4

terrorist attacks 460–1

Tewfik, Khedive (son of lsmail) 102–3, 104, 107, 108, 116, 119

Texas Company 244

Tigris River 2, 16

Torkaman, Treaty of (1828) 159

Total 466

tourism 423

Trans-Iranian Railway 240, 253

Transjordan 178, 207–12, 233, 235, 236–7, 257, 266, 269

Trucial Coast (later United Arab Emirates) 58, 318

Trucial States 245

Truman, Harry S. 263, 264, 282

Truman Doctrine (1947) 264, 281

Tunis 354, 355

Tunisia 85, 95, 129, 420, 476, 496–7

Turco-Circassians 103, 115

Turkestan 158, 160

Turkey/Turks 1, 414; and Islam 18, 195; Portuguese driven out of Bahrain and Muscat 44; bankruptcy 100; in First World War 127; loss of role in Europe 146–7; signs secret agreement with Germany 152; declares war on Allies (1914) 153; allies with Germany 168; and Sykes-Picot agreement 178;
Arabs contribute to defeat of 179; armistice agreement 188; Kurds in 191, 495–6; democracy 195; accepts award of Mosul to Iraq 223; remains neutral in Second World War 227–8, 247; attacks Russia 238; maintenance of independence 264, 281; Baghdad Pact 279, 285; and NATO 279; and Soviet Union 284; relations with Egypt improve 328; nation-state forged 363; and US 383; and Kurds 390; and Israel 400; presence in Iraq 455; looks to Middle East 494–5; relations with Israel 496–7

turkification 146–7, 147

Umayyad family 17

unemployment 422

United Arab Emirates 373, 441, 453, 480

United Arab Military Command 304

United Arab Republic 295, 297

United Arab States 301

United Nations 254, 255, 375, 390; and Palestine 264–5, 265, 359; General Assembly 265, 268; Security Council 282, 309, 311, 349, 442, 443–4, 457, 494; Emergency Fund 290; Resolution 242 332, 335, 343, 358; Resolution 338 332, 335; Resolution 598 375; imposes sanctions against Iraq 377, 380; Resolution 687 385; Resolution 688 387

UN Emergency Force 309, 333–4

UN International Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) 349, 491

United Nations Special Commission on Palestine (UNSCOP) 264

United States of America: in First World War 184–5; and mandates 207, 221; and Anglo-Persian agreement 239; ‘open-door’ policy 243, 245; in Second World War 249, 252–3, 253, 254; and Iran 253, 280, 282, 283, 321; Zionists make US their HQ 262; pressurizes Britain to allow Jewish immigration to Palestine 265; opposes forcible partition of Palestine 265–6; recognizes state of Israel 266; and Baghdad Pact 279; support for Israel 280, 283, 286, 315, 332, 336, 360; and Nasser 288; and economic blockade of Egypt 293; lands marines
in Beirut after Iraq revolution 296; Egyptian dependence on 306, 340, 341; and Yom Kippur war 332; supervises Arafat’s evacuation 351; marines in Lebanon 352–3, 353; declares prepared for dialogue with PLO 358; and Iraq-Iran war 375; response to invasion of Kuwait 378, 379–80; deployment of troops in the Gulf 382–3; emergence of Pax Americana 382–95; attempt at neutering Iraq 383–93; and Arab-Israeli conflict 395, 397–400, 400; and Palestinian-Israeli conflict 410–11; declaration of war on by Islamic
jihad
435, 435–6; relations with Saudi Arabia 435–6; war on Afghanistan 438; regime-change policy 439, 440; alliance with Saudi Arabia 439–40; Iraq Liberation Act 440; conquest of Iraq 441–4; reconstruction of Jordan 479; relations with Iran 487–8; influence 498–502; relations with Palestine 499; regimes in power 523–5

UNSCOM, weapons inspections in Iraq 384–5, 391–3

Urban II, Pope 23

Vance, Cyrus 336

Veiled Protectorate 117, 119, 121

velayat-e-faqih
371

Venice Declaration 350

Vichy government 248, 250, 253

Victoria, Queen 84, 84–5, 94

Vienna 27, 38

Wafd party 201, 202, 213–21, 250, 255, 256, 261, 271–2

Wahhab, Ibn Abdel 502

Wahhabis 46, 57, 137–8, 140, 148, 173, 206–10, 235, 365, 460, 481–3, 502