A History of the Middle East (80 page)

Ghazi (son of King Feisal I) 224

GIA (Armed Islamic Group) 429

Gibbon, Edward 28

Gladstone, William Ewart 84, 93–4, 100, 104–5, 106–7, 107, 108–10, 113, 119

global financial crisis 480

Glubb, General John Bagot 2, 236, 248, 266, 288, 292

Goklap, Zia 145

Golan Heights 309, 331

Golestan Treaty of (1813) 259

Gordon, General Charles George 108, 110–11

Gorst, Eldon 123–5

Goths 13

Governing Council of Iraqis 444

Graeco-Turkish war (1920–22) 190–1

Grant, Sir Robert 65

Granville, Lord 105

Great Depression 212

Greater Lebanon 361

Greece 58–9, 59–60, 264

Grey, Sir Edward 173

Gulbenkian, Calouste 242, 243

Gulf Cooperation Council 373, 489

Gulf Oil 245

Gulf War 377–81, 382–3, 395–6, 435

Habsburg Empire/Habsburgs 27

Hadrian 4

Haganah 235, 261–2, 266

Hakim, caliph 22

Hamas 402, 404, 460, 463, 467, 471–4, 478, 488, 491, 492–3, 499, 503, 514–15

Hammurabi, King of Babylon 2

Al-Hariri, Rafiq 457

Harkabi, Yehoshafat 469

Hashemites 147, 148, 174, 180, 189, 204, 223, 236, 237, 258, 260, 269, 292, 295, 455

Hasmonaeans 8

Hassan, Amir 301

Hassan, Imam (son of Ali, cousin of the Prophet) 154

al-Hawali, Sheikh Safar 436

Hebrews 4–5

Hebron 231

Hejaz 46, 57, 58, 59, 67, 137, 148, 172, 174, 176, 203, 206–10

Hellenism 8

Herod, King 11–12

Herzl. Dr Theodor 144, 182–3

Histadrut 235

Hitler, Adolf 247

Hittites 3

Hizbollah 354, 360, 403, 405, 457–9, 467–8, 490–1, 493, 499

Hogarth, Commander D. G. 185

Holland 44

Holocaust 263

Holy Land 23, 134

Hormuz 44, 156

House of Herod 4, 9

Al-Houthi, Hussein Badr al-Din 459–60

Hrawi, Elias 362

Hulagu (Genghis Khan’s grandson) 25

Hunchark 92

Hunkiar Iskelessi, Treaty of 61

al-Husri, Sati 260

Hussein (son of Ali, cousin of the Prophet) 16, 154

Hussein, Ahmad 219

Hussein, Amir, Abdullah 148–9, 172, 180

Hussein, King of Jordan 270, 279, 288, 292, 294, 296, 304, 308, 310, 313, 344, 346, 355, 357–8, 378, 399–400, 402, 412, 415

Hussein, Saddam.
see
Saddam Hussein

Hussein Kamil Hassan 385, 388–9, 400

Hussein of Mecca, Sharif (King of the Hejaz) 147, 148, 172–3, 174, 175, 177–81, 185, 197, 203, 206–10

al-Husseini, Hajj Amin 231, 262, 267

Ibn Saud (Abdul Aziz) 173, 176, 208–9, 210–13, 223, 237, 244, 245, 260, 278, 292, 365

Ibn Saud, Abdullah 57–8

Ibn Tulun 21

Ibrahim (son of Muhammad Ali) 56–64, 66, 67, 70, 71

Ibrahim, Izzat Eddin 442

Ibrahim Pasha 131

Imperial Bank of Persia 163

Imperial Ottoman Bank 90

Imperial Rescript 77, 100

India 7, 157, 174, 247, 248, 263

Institut d’Egypte 50

Interim Iraqi Government 446

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) 477

International Monetary Fund 322

intifada
356–9, 408–9

Intönü. Ismet 196

Iran 418–19; Shiites in 17, 484; Persia renamed 155, 240; Kurds in 191; declares war on Germany 252; Soviet and British troops invade 252; and US 253, 281, 282; Baghdad Pact 279, 282, 285; oil industry 281–2, 284–5, 316, 318, 319, 327, 368, 382; supports Tudeh Party 284–5; and Azerbaijan 285; and OPEC 319, 321; five year plan (1973–8) 321; relations with Egypt improve 328; and Islamic Revolution 341, 367, 369–71, 374, 376, 383, 435; reforms 367–8; religious opposition 369; anti-Americanism 370; Iraq invades (1980) 372; Syria supports 373; sanctions against 382; poverty 452; nuclear programme 477, 484, 487, 494; theocracy 483–6; elections 484–5; Ashura protests 485–6; regional influence 487; relations with US 487–8; claim on Bahrain 488–9; patronage of Palestine 491–2; regional influence 522–3

Iraq (previously Mesopotamia): Ismail occupies 28; Ottoman-British agreement 153; and Sykes-Picot agreement 178; Kurds in 17, 191, 324, 386, 443, 499; British mandate 205, 207, 208, 211, 222–4; rebellion of tribes 206; tribal raids into 208; and Ikhwan warriors 211–12; independence 224–5, 227; Nuri al-Said dominates 225; oil industry 243, 316, 319, 323–4, 325, 394, 465–6; putsch (1941) 250; as base for British invasion of Iran 251; and League of Arab States 257; Feisal installed in 258; attempt to intervene in Palestine 267, 268; Baghdad Pact 279, 285; revolution 295–6; emergence of Saddam Hussein 315, 323; and OPEC 319; antagonism to Syria 338; invasion of
Kuwait 359, 377–81; Aoun receives help from 361; Iran invades (1980) 372; Shiites in 372, 444–7, 451, 455–6, 465, 488; UN sanctions against and effect 382, 384, 390, 394; neutering of by US 383–8, 389–90; weapons inspections 384–5, 391–3, 442; biological weapons 385; Shiite and Kurd uprisings 386–7; fight back to the fold 388–95; oil-for-food deal 391, 394, 442; bombing of by US 393; improvement of relations with Arab countries 393; Sunnis in 441, 448–9, 465; US conquest of 441–4; pillaging of by mobs 443; Coalition Provisional Authority(CPA) 443–4; insurgency 447–51, 457; Sunni/Shia civil war 449–51, 451; oil 451; sectarianism 453; US military presence 464–5; return of central authority 464–6;
jihadism
477; reconstruction 479; US retreat 498

Iraq Liberation Act (1988) 389

Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC) 224, 243, 245, 319, 323

Iraq Study Group 488

Iraqi National Accord 388

Iraqi National Congress (INC) 388

Iraq-Iran war (1980–880 327, 350, 372–3, 374–5, 377, 379

Islam 4, 14; and the triumph of the Umayyads 16–17; Golden Age of 17; spread of 18; lack of racial distinction 19–20; retreat into isolation 24; and Turkey 195; and holy places 210, 212, 259; and Arab nationalism 259; communist hostility to 284; and Atatürk 364; growth of activism and political 423–32; globalization of Islamic
jihad
432–7

Islamic Action Front 478

Islamic Circle 279

Islamic Empire 18–21

Islamic Jihad 426, 432–7

Islamic Salvation Army (AIS) 429

‘islamization’ 17, 18

Ismail (son of Ibrahim Pasha) 99–102, 113, 114, 116–17, 127

Ismail (son of Muhammed Ali) 59

Ismail I Shah ‘the Great Sufi’ 28, 44, 155, 156

Ismailis 155

Israel 400; Druze in 22; state of Israel recognized 266; admitted to UN 268; US supports 280, 283, 286, 315, 332, 336, 360; ‘Law of Return’ 286; Lavon affair 287; alliance with France
287–8, 289; irrigation schemes 303, 304; attacks Egyptian airfields 309; refusal to deal with PLO 336, 347, 355; Camp David agreements 338–9, 405–8; Treaty of Washington signed (1979) 340; colonization drive 343; diplomatic relations broken with 346; supports Christian separatism in Lebanon 349; full scale invasion of Lebanon (1982) 350–1; withdrawal from Lebanon 354;
intifada
356–9; rejects independent Arab Palestine 359; peace process 383, 395–400, 402, 404, 405–8; and Oslo Accords 397–9; and Grapes of Wrath offensive 403; war with Palestinians 408–12; Arabs in 452; Hizbollah rocket attacks on 458, 468; reoccupation of Palestine 466; plans to withdraw from Palestine 466–7; move to the right 468–9; control over Palestine 469–71; war with Lebanon 476–7, 490–1; war with Gaza 492–3, 496–7; destroys Syrian nuclear facility 493–4; relations with Turkey 496–7, 521; relations with Egypt 521–2

Issawi, Charles 33

Italy 120, 129, 190, 216, 247

Izzet Pasha 140

Al-Jabarti, Shaikh 49, 50, 54

Janissaries 32, 34–5, 57, 71, 80

Japan 320

Al-Jazzar, Ahmad 47–8

Jedda, Treaty of (1927) 211

Jemal Pasha 142, 150–1, 152, 169–70, 176, 179, 181

Jerusalem 2, 4, 5, 9, 23, 135, 176, 178, 180, 181, 185, 236, 264, 268, 269, 337, 339, 349, 350, 405, 407

Jesus Christ 5, 12, 14

Jewish Agency 230, 231

Jewish National Fund 183

Jews 431; rebellion against Roman Empire 4; ties with England 41, 134; and Committee of Union and Progress 141; and Palestine 144, 181, 181–2, 183, 185, 186–7, 230–5; and Young Turks 145; persecution 181; Arab uprising in Palestine 206

jihad
23, 60, 169, 174, 378, 429–30, 432–7, 439, 461–4, 477

Johnson, Lyndon 306

Jordan: Nabataens control of 10; creation of Hashemite
Kingdom 207, 269; and Palestinian refugees 269–70; British troops flown in after Iraq revolution 296; and Yom Kippur war 331; refuses to represent Palestinians 339; Palestinian guerrillas in 344; aborted peace with the Palestinians 355; supports Iraq in Iraq/Iran war 373; and invasion of Kuwait 378; and Oslo Accords 399; and Israel 400; suspends parliament 439; tribal identities in 452; Shiites in 453; presence in Iraq 455; stability 478–9; reconstruction 479; uprising 509

Jordan River 303, 304

Jordan Valley 343

Judaea 2

Julius Caesar 9–10

Kaaba 46

Kamel, Mustafa 120–1, 121–2, 125, 139, 165, 260

Kamel Pasha 150

Kamel Sultan Hussein 127, 172

Kandahar 157

Kassem, Abdul Karim 295–6, 298, 302, 303, 317

al-Kawakibi, Abdul Rahman 139

KDP (Kurdish Democratic Party) 389, 390

Kemal, Mustafa.
see
Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal

Kennedy, John F. 306

Kerameh, battle of 344

Khaled, King of Saudi Arabia 323

Khameini, President 375–6, 484, 486

Khamenei, Ali 418, 419

Khan, Malkom 164

Khan, Mirza Taqi 162

Kharg Island 160

Khartoum 111

Khatami, President Mohammed 419, 438, 484–5, 485

Khomeini, Ayatollah 368–71, 374, 375–6, 418, 445

Khrushchev, Nikita 285–6, 305

Khuzestan 372

Khyber Pass 157

King, Henry 204

King-Crane report 204

Kissinger, Henry 329, 334–5, 335, 337, 352, 373

Kitchener, Lord 111, 120, 125, 125–6, 127, 129, 149, 172–3

Koprulu family 36

Koran 14, 19, 211, 219

Küchük Kainarja, Treaty of 38–9

Kurdish Democratic Party.
see
KDP

Kurdistan 191, 281, 443

Kurds 19, 20, 85, 92–3, 144, 145, 191, 303, 324, 372, 374, 381, 386, 386–7, 387, 389, 443, 495–6, 499

Kuwait 394, 412–13, 431; and
Britain 137, 153, 208; and oil 243, 245, 316, 319, 325, 327, 377; and Soviet Union 317; and OPEC 319; Saddam’s invasion and seizure of 359, 377–81; Iraq-Iran war 373; Sunnis in 441; succession 480–1; elections 481

Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development 317

Kuwait Oil Company (KOC) 245

Lahej, Sultan of 65

Lampson, Sir Miles 216, 217, 220–1, 250, 255

Laodicea (later Latakia) 8

Lausanne, Treaty of (1923) 191

Lausanne, Treaty of (1924) 222

Lavon affair 287

Lawrence, Colonel T. E. 179, 180, 196, 197, 204, 206

League of Arab States 257–8, 366

League of Nations 188, 205, 217, 221, 221–2, 234, 235, 238

Lebanese forces 360, 362

Lebanon 33, 62, 479; and Levant 2; Shiites in 16, 17, 373, 376, 457–9; Sunnis in 16, 17, 441, 463; Druze in 22, 226, 459; autonomy for 81, 131; and Sykes-Picot agreement 178; French mandate 205, 206, 207, 225, 253–4; constitution imposed (1926) 228; education 229–30; independence 254–5; and League of Arab States 257; civil war starts (1975) 315; weakness of 345; effects of Middle East oil boom 347; start of full scale civil war (1975) 348; Syrian intervention 348–9; Israeli invasion of (1978) 349; suicide bombers blow up US and French marine HQ 353; war with Israel 403, 405, 476–7, 490–1; Taif accords (1989) 451–2; relations with Iran 488; reconstruction 491; elections 502–3

Lend-Lease Act (1941) 252

Lesseps, Ferdinand de 69, 98, 108

Levant 1, 2, 254, 257

Liberal Union 150

Libya 95, 143, 247, 312, 320, 327, 338, 382, 439, 475, 494, 502–3, 511

Lloyd George, David 184, 199, 200, 202

London, Treaty of (1827) 60

London, Treaty of (1832) 61

London, Treaty of (1841) 67, 68, 69, 96

Louis Napoleon 75

Louis XVI, King 47

Louis-Philippe, King 67

Maan-Aqaba territory 211

Maccabaeus, Judas 9

Maccabean kingdom 4

MacDonald, Ramsay 215, 232

Macedonia 142

McMahon, Sir Henry 174–5, 176, 180

‘Mahdi’ (Muhammad ibn Abdullah) 110, 111, 119–20

Mahdi Army 455, 465

Maher, Ahmed 255

Maher, Ali 249, 250, 255

Mahmud I, Sultan 75

Mahmud II, Sultan 57, 58, 59, 64, 65–6, 71, 79–80

Al-Maliki, Nuri Kamal 464–5, 504, 512

Mamlukes 20, 25–6, 29, 33–4, 35, 40, 48, 53, 54, 58–9

Mark, St 12

Maronites 33, 48, 130–1, 131, 177, 206, 225, 228, 228–9, 254

Martel, Charles 28

Marzouki, Moncef 439

al-Masri, General Aziz 249–50

Mecca 29, 46, 57, 137–8, 140, 177, 366

Mecca Agreement (2007) 472

Medes 5

Medina 57, 137, 461

Mehmed Said Pasha, ‘Ingiliz Said’ 87

Meir, Golda 332

Mejid, Sultan Abdul 79, 80, 191

Mesopotamia (later Iraq) 1, 2, 3, 16, 17, 25, 34, 48, 130, 136, 153, 154, 155, 171, 187, 237, 242

‘Middle East’ as term 1

Middle East Supply Centre 1, 260

Midhat Pasha 82, 83, 86, 135, 136, 143

Millspaugh, A. C. 239

Milner, Lord 113

Mobil 243

Mohammed, Mirza Ali 162

Mohammed Ali al-Din 165, 313–14

Mohammed II ‘the Conqueror 27, 28, 30, 35

Mohammed Shah (1834–48) 160

Mohammed Shah (Mogul emperor) 157

Mohammed V 144, 189

Moltke Helmuth, Count von 65, 71

Mongols 20, 25

Montagu, Edwin 184

Montgomery, Field-Marshal Bernard 251, 256

Montreux Conference (1937) 217

Morganthau, Henry, Sr 184

Morocco 95, 113, 476, 509

Mossadegh, Mohammed 281–2, 318, 319, 367

Mosul 136, 155, 223, 242, 298

Mount Lebanon 2, 130, 130–1, 131, 206

Mubarak, President Hosni 342, 393, 411, 415, 427, 430, 454, 475, 500