A History of the Middle East (81 page)

Mubarak the Great 137

Mudros, Treaty of (1918) 181, 189, 207

Muhammad, Prophet 14–16, 154, 259, 462

Muhammad, Imam (born 873) 154

Muhammad Ali 52–70, 96, 114, 116–17, 136, 202, 365

Muharrem, Decree of 89

Munich crisis (1938) 234

Munich Olympic Games (1972) 345

Murad (nephew of Abdul Aziz) 82

Murad I, sultan 26–7, 32

Muscat 44, 51

Muslim Brotherhood 219–20, 255, 259, 267, 271, 273, 275, 276, 307, 364–5, 373, 426, 460, 463–4, 475, 475–6, 513

Muslim Congress, Jerusalem (1931) 232

Mustafa (Selim III’s cousin) 57

Mustafa III, Sultan 39

Muzaffar al-Din 164, 165–6

Nabataens 9, 10

Nadir Shah (Nadir Quli Beg) 157–8

Nahas Pasha 214–15, 215, 251, 255, 260, 267, 272, 273

Napoleon Bonaparte 48–51, 50, 98, 158–9

Napoleon III 81, 98–9

Nasir al-Din, Shah of Persia 162–4

Nasir al-Mulk 168

Nasrallah, Hassan 457, 490–1

Nasser, Gamal Abdul 216, 220, 251, 274, 286, 365, 425–6; leads Free Officers 270–1; becomes prime minister 276; background 276–7; rivalry with Nuri al-Said 278–80; popularity 280, 286, 291–2, 292; neutralist policies 286, 288; recognizes communist China 288; confirmed as president 291; plot to assassinate 295; underlying weakness of position 296; and government of UAR 297; Charter of National Action 299–300; improved relations with Soviet Union 305–6; and Congo 306; response to US aid 306; accepts limitations of Egypt’s military options 310; death (1970) 328; and Sadat 328, 336; and pan-Arabism 364

National Iranian Oil Company 282, 319, 368

NATO 1, 279, 496

Navarino 61

Nazib 65–6

‘Near East’ as term 1

Nebuchadnezzar, King 5

Neguib, General Muhammad 274, 275, 276

Nehru, Pandit 279–80

Nejaf 46

Nejd 46, 57–8, 136, 148, 153, 212, 235

Nelson, Horatio, Viscount 50

Netanyahu, Binyamin 403–4, 408, 468–9, 499

Nicholas I, Tsar 75, 142

Nile, the 2

Nile High Dam 298, 305

Nineveh 5

Nixon, Richard 311, 329

Nokrashy Pasha 267, 271

North Africa 129, 227

Nubar Pasha 102

Obama, Barack 469, 477, 488, 498–500, 524, 525

Obeid, Atif 439

oil 166–7, 169, 213, 224, 239–41, 281–2, 316–28, 368, 377, 394, 421–3, 440, 451, 452, 465–6, 479

Olmert, Ehud 467–8

Oman 29, 321, 373, 416, 508

Omar, Caliph 16

Omdurman 120

Operation Desert Fox 393

Operation Provide Comfort 388

Operation Southern Watch 388

Organization of African Unity 306

Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC) 312

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) 319, 321, 326–8, 377, 421, 423

Oslo Accords 397–9, 400, 401, 402, 403, 405

Osman 26

Othman 16

Ottoman Administrative Decentralization Party 149

Ottoman Decentralization League 149–50

Ottoman Empire 26–39, 284; destruction of 1, 30–1, 221, 313, 362–3; domination of 21; and Yemen 29, 129; decline 30–1, 37–8, 38–9, 64, 83, 159; as Sick Man of Europe 31, 40, 75; preservation of 35–6; militarism 37; and Britain 41; French in 41, 94; and Greek Christians 59–60; and Anglo-Turkish treaty 64; war with Russia 75; Russia declares war on (1877) 83–4; development of heartland 91–2; modernization of 95; financial collapse of 100, 135; turns east 129–30, 135; rivalry with Persian Empire 130, 155; partitioning of 206; nation-states emerge from 363

Pacification of the Levant (1840) 67

Pahlavi, Mohammed Reza 252

Pakistan 285

Palestine 75–6, 178; and Philistines 4; and Aramaic 5;
Egyptian Rule 8; Jewish community 9, 134, 181–2; Persians occupy 13; languages in 17; Seljuks take 22; and national home of the Jews 144; British mandate 205, 207, 211, 230–8, 263, 265, 266; Arab uprising against Jews 206; and Zionists’ aim 258, 260; proposals for future of 260–4; Anglo-American commission (1946) 263–4; partition of 265; Deir Yasin massacre 266; state of Israel declared in 266; Arab refugees in 268; percentage in Arab hands 268; idea of mini-state 346–7; and Oslo Accords 397–9, 402, 403, 407; and Camp David negotiations 405–8; war with Israel 408–12; Israel reoccupies 466; Israel withdrawal plans 466–7; settlements demolished 467; Israel invades 467–8; Israeli control 469–71; elections, 2006 470–2; governance 470–5;
jihadism
477; Iranian patronage 491–2; economy 492; relations with US 499

Palestine Liberation Army 313

Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) 313, 397, 401–2; set up 304; and Front of Steadfastness 330; Israelis refuse to deal with 336; reconstructed 343; concentrates in Lebanon 345, 347, 349, 351; quasi-official status 346–7; Israeli stranglehold of Beirut HQ 351; HQ in Tunis 354, 355; and
intifada
357; ‘two-state solution’ 358; and invasion of Kuwait 378; secret talks with Israel 397–9

Palestinian Authority 467, 470, 471–2, 507

Palestinian Legislative Council 471–2

Palestinian National Council 343, 347, 358

Palestinian National Covenant 343

Palmerston, Henry Temple, Viscount 61, 64–8

pan-Turanian movement 145, 146

Paris, Treaty of (1856) 76–7, 131

Paris peace conference 196, 198, 199, 203

Parthians 10

Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK) 389, 390

Peel, Lord 233, 234, 237

Peres, Shimon 354, 359–60, 400, 402, 402–3

Permanent Mandate Commission 221, 231

Persia 1, 5–6, 13; and Seljuks 22; Ghengiz Khan seizes 25; Shah Ismail founds modern 28; Shiism flourishes in 154–5; renamed Iran 155, 240; Ottoman Turks invade 156; free trade with Russia 159; Russia declares war on 159; agrees to recognise Afghanistan 160; Constitutional Revolution 164–5; nationalists split 167; joins League of Nations 238; Anglo-Persian agreement (1919) 238–9; Soviet-Persian treaty (1921) 239, 252; and oil 239–41

Persian Empire 7, 13, 28–9, 130, 155–6, 157, 284

Persian Gulf 7, 129, 136, 152, 156, 169

Peter the Great, Tsar 38, 157, 158

Petroleum Concessions ltd 245

Petromas 466

Philip, King of Macedon 7

Philip ‘the Arab’ 11

Philistines 4

Phoenicians 4

Picot, Georges 178

PKK 387, 390, 495–6

Plan Dalet 266

Pompey 9–10

Popular Front (France) 227

popular movements, region-wide 451–5

population 421

Portugal 37, 44, 156

privatization 419–20

Protocol of Alexandria (1944) 261

Ptolemaic Egypt 8

Pyramids, battle of 49

Qaddafy, Muammar 312, 320, 411, 439, 454, 475, 494, 502, 503

Al-Qaeda 428, 433, 435, 437, 460–1, 462, 483

Qahtanis 7

Qajar dynasty 158

Qatar 245, 317, 318, 373, 416, 417, 481, 507, 519

Qunut
438

al-Qutb, Sayyid 425–6

Rabin, Yitzhak 397–400, 400, 401, 402, 408

Rafsanjani, Akbar Hashemi 485, 486

Rafsanjani Ali Akbar 376

Rahman, Abdul 148

Rahmi Bey 141

Rameses II ‘the Great’ 2

Rameses III 5

Rashidoun (Rightly Guided Ones) 16, 26

Reagan, Ronald 351–2

‘Red Line agreement’ 242, 243

regime change 498–505

Reshid Pasha, Mustafa 71, 73, 74, 79

Reuter, Julius de, Baron 163, 166

Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) 274–6, 291, 302, 323, 328

Reza Khan, Shah of Iran 239–41, 251–2, 285

Rice, Condoleezza 487

Rida, Rashid 139

Ritter, Scott 392

Riyadh 148

Rogers, William 311

Rogers Plan (1970) 311, 329

Roman Empire 4, 9–12

Roosevelt, Franklin D. 253, 260

Roosevelt, Theodore 124–5

Rosebury, Lord 119

Rosetta 54

Rothschild, House of 100

Rothschild, Lord 181, 185

Royal Dutch Shell 166, 242, 243, 466

Rushdie, Pasha 198, 199

Russia 50, 76, 382, 421; as protector of Orthodox Christians 41, 134; Ottoman Empire at war with 75; dispute with France over control 75–6; and Persian Gulf 136, 152; declares war on Persia 159; free trade with Persia 159; Bolshevik Revolution 191, 238, 283, 479; defeat in First World War 238; historic interest in Muslim World 283–5

Russo-Japanese War (1904–5) 165

Russo-Turkish wars 38–9

Sabah family 137

al-Sadat, Anwar 96, 220, 249, 274, 315, 328–31, 335–8, 341, 349, 350, 427

Saddam Hussein 315, 323, 324, 325, 359, 372, 375, 377–81, 384, 385–6, 387, 389–90, 391, 394–5, 430, 441, 442, 449, 466

al-Sadr, Imam Moussa 347

al-Sadr, Mohammed Baqir 445–6

Sadr, Muqtada 447

Safavid dynasty 28–9, 29, 36, 45, 155–6

Said (uncle of Abbas) 96–8, 98

al-Said, Nuri 224, 225, 248, 260, 261, 279, 292, 295, 305

Saladin 23, 25

Salafism 425, 462–4

Salisbury, Lord 94, 111, 120

Salonika 145–6

Samuel, Sir Herbert 184, 230

San Stefano, Treaty of 84

Sassanian Empire 13, 16

Saud, House of 147–9, 258, 259, 292–3, 365, 366, 502

al-Saud, Viceroy of Nejd 211

Saud King of Saudi Arabia 292–3, 294, 304

Saudi Arabia 178, 212; pilgrims to 212; war with Yemen 212; and oil 245, 316, 319, 321–3, 325, 332, 421, 422; and League of Arab States 257; hostility towards
Hashemites 258, 260; and Soviet Union 285; joins Egypt and Syria in joint military command system 293; and OPEC 319, 322, 327; industrial development 322; as financial superpower 322–3; plan for creation of Palestinian state 350; alliance with the west 365–6; and Iran-Iraq war 373; and invasion of Kuwait 378; relations with US 393, 435–6; succession 418; birth rate 421; alliance with US 439–40; Sunnis in 441, 456, 461; regional identity 452; presence in Iraq 455; Shiites in 456; liberalization 481–3; Houthi incursions 489–90; relations with Syria 500

Saudi Development Fund 322

Second World War.
see
under individual countries

Seleucid Empire 8, 11

Seleucus 8

Selim I ‘the Grim’ 28–9, 29, 33, 35, 36, 155

Selim III 47–8, 50, 52–3, 53, 57

Selim the Sot 35

Seljuks 22, 25, 154

Semites 6

September 11th 424, 438, 439, 482

Sèvres, Treaty of (1920) 190, 191

Shakespear, Captain W. H. I. 173–4

Shalamaneser III, King 5

Shamir, Yitzhak 358, 359, 396

Shapar I 13

al Shara, Farouq 396

Sharett, Moshe 287

Sharia
law 14–15, 72, 116, 145–6, 194, 210, 364, 426

Sharon, Ariel 332, 408–9, 410, 411, 412, 426, 466–7

Sherif Pasha 102

Shihabs 62

Shiism: in Iran 17, 484; in Lebanon 17, 347, 349, 353, 360, 361; declared official religion of Persia 28; intermittent warfare with Sunnis 28–9, 155; autonomy 62; Abdul Hamid favours Sunnis over 144; historical and political differences from Sunnis 154–5; becomes foundation of Persian nationalism 155; religious hierarchy in Persia 161; in Iraq 223, 325, 374, 386–7, 387, 388, 444–7, 451, 455–6, 465, 488; and Iran’s Islamic Revolution 376; and Sunni regional domination 440–1; ascendancy in Iraq 444; Sunni/Shia civil war 451; expansion 453; non-state actors 455–60;
proselytization programme 489

Shiite Ismaili movement 22

Shishakli, Colonel 293

Shukairy, Ahmed 304

Shuster, William 168

Sicily 21

Sidi Barrani 247

Sidky Pasha 215–16, 218, 256–7

Sidon 4

Sidqi, General Bakr 225

Sinai 121, 183, 217, 290, 329, 332, 334, 339

Sistani, Grand Ayatollah 446–7, 449, 455–6

Six-Day War 308–9, 312, 313, 315, 342

Snowcroft, Brent 387

Socony-Vacuum (later Mobil) 243

Soffer, Arnon 397

Sokolov, Nahum 183

Solod, Daniel 286

Solomon 4

South Korea 423

South Lebanon army 354

South Yemen 321, 338

Soviet Union.
see also
Russia: treaty with Persia 239, 252; in Second World War 249, 252, 252–3, 254; expansion of empire 263; and Zionist struggle in Palestine 265; recognizes state of Israel 266; Britain tries to keep out of eastern Mediterranean 272; and Baghdad Pact 279; and Iran 281; and Turkey 284; policy in Middle East 284–6; and Syria 293; against economic blockade of Egypt 310–11, 311; decline of influence in Middle East 315; and Kuwait 317; and Suez Canal 329; and Yom Kippur war 332, 332–3; US strategy ignores role in Middle East 352; invades Afghanistan 373; collapse of 382, 397

Spain 21

Sponeck, Hans von 390

Stalin, Joseph 253, 263, 284

Standard Oil 166, 213, 244, 245

Stephenson, James 97

Stern Gang 266

Sudan 96, 110, 111, 119–20, 202–3, 214, 215, 217, 247, 256–7, 277

Suez 278

Suez Canal 107, 109, 215, 242, 257, 331, 342, 489; survey for 50; building of 69, 98–101; British warships close 108; and Cromer 121; in First World War 127, 171, 172; and Ottoman Empire 129, 137; as British link to India 169; in Second World War 250; nationalization 289; as
symbol of Western colonial domination 289; reopened (1957) 290, 334; and Israel 309, 311; US-sponsored cease-fire 312; closure of (1996–7) 320, 329; and Yom Kippur war 331

Suez Canal Company 98, 100, 124, 289

Suez crisis 289–90, 293, 318

Sulaiman the Magnificent 30, 32, 36, 38, 41

Sumerians 3

Sunnism 425, 449–51; statistics 17; intermittent warfare with Shiites 28–9; Ottoman sultans as leaders of 29–30, 46, 138, 140; autonomy 62; Shihabi amirs convert to become Maronites 130; Abdul Hamid favours 144; Turkish empire remains sole protector 144; historical and political differences from Shiites 154–5; religious hierarchy in Persia 161; in Iraq 223, 325, 441, 448–9, 465; in Syria 226, 331; in Lebanon 361; and Islamic Revolution 374; regional domination 440–1; world percentage of 441; revolt in Iraq 448–9; Sunni/Shia civil war 449–51; non-state actors 460–4

Supreme Council for Islamic Revolution in Iraq 446–7

Supreme Council of the Armed Forces 511

Supreme Islamic Iraqi Council 447