A History of the Middle East (77 page)

B. Lewis’s
The Arabs in History
(4th edn, London, 1968) is brief but still unequalled in its account of the Arabs at the apogee of their power. A more detailed history of the Arab expansion and empire appears in J. B. Glubb’s
The Great Arab Conquests
(London, 1963),
The Empire of the Arabs
(London, 1963) and
The Last Centuries, from the Muslim Empires to the Renaissance of Europe 1145–1453
(London, 1967). Hugh Kennedy’s When Baghdad
Ruled the World
(New York, 2006) explores the medieval history of Muslim-ruled Iraq and its civilizational glories – people who doubt its importance should try doing maths in Roman numerals with no zero and no algebra. Jonathan Berkley’s
The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600–1800
(Cambridge, 2002) provides a religious overview of historical developments.

For the first Western invasion of the Middle East, see Steven Runciman’s
monumental
A History of the Crusades
(3 vols, Harmondsworth, 1978), although in some respects this has been overtaken by more recent research. A. Maalouf’s
The Crusades Through Arab Eyes
(London, 1984) is a personal favourite.

My own
The Arabs
(2nd edn, Harmondsworth, 1985) was an attempt to bring the story of the Arab peoples up to the present day but A. H. Hourani’s
A History of the Arab Peoples
(London, 1991) is certain to become indispensable. J. Berque’s
The Arabs: Their History and Future
(London, 1964) provides the perspective of an outstanding French historian of the Arabs and Islam.

The work of another French scholar, M. Rodinson,
Islam and Capitalism
(London, 1966) helps to enlighten the subject of Chapter 2, ‘Islam on the Defensive’. Lord Kinross’s
The Ottoman Centuries, the Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire
(London, 1977) is a highly readable but reliable account of the last Muslim world power and B. Lewis’s
The Emergence of Modern Turkey
(2nd edn, London, 1968) remains the best history of the transformation of its heartland into the Turkish Republic. A. Lutfi al-Sayyid Marsot’s
Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali
(Cambridge, 1984) is an outstanding study by an Egyptian historian of the Muslim power which came close to repla-cing the Ottoman Empire. Donald Quataert’s
The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922
(Cambridge, 2005) is another social history of the rise and fall of the Middle East’s greatest empire.

Modern Egypt
by E. Baring, First Earl of Cromer (2 vols, London, 1908) is still essential not only for its account of the British occupation but also as a classic exposition of the British imperial view of the Middle East. It may be balanced by a French view in J. Berque’s
Egypt, Imperialism and Revolution
(London, 1972), by an Egyptian one in A. Lutfi al-Sayyid Marsot’s
Egypt and Cromer: A Study in Anglo-Egyptian relations
(London, 1968) and possibly by P. Mansfield’s
The British in Egypt
(London, 1971).

For the development of Arab nationalism and relations between Arabs and Turks,
Arab Nationalism, an Anthology
, edited by S. Haim, remains invaluable as much for the editor’s introduction as for the rare anthology of Arab writing on the subject. E. Dawn’s
From Ottomanism to Arabism, Essays on the Origin of Arab Nationalism
(Chicago, 1973) also makes a useful contribution to the subject. The Arab Awakening: The Story of the Arab
National Movement (Beirut, 1962) by the Palestinian George Antonius is still unique in the way it shaped the thinking of a generation, but it should be balanced by the differing perspective of Z. Zeine’s
Arab–Turkish Relations and the Emergence of Arab Nationalism
(Beirut, 1958). Bassam Tibi’s
Arab Nationalism, between Islam and the Nation State
(London, 1997) is a strikingly well-informed account, tracing the European roots of modern Arab identity.

On the subject of modernization and the impact of the West on the Middle East, A. H. Hourani’s
Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age 1798–1939
(2nd edn, London, 1983) and his two collections of essays
Europe and the Middle East
(London, 1980) and
The Emergence of the Modern Middle East
(London, 1981) are exceptionally rewarding.
Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East: The Nineteenth Century
edited by W. R. Polk and R. L. Chambers (Chicago, 1968) also contains useful material. R. Owen’s
The Middle East in the World Economy 1800–1914
is a splendidly lucid and comprehensive study of its subject. A unique work of reference is J. C. Hurewitz’s
The Middle East and North Africa in World Politics, A Documentary Record: Volume 1 European Expansion 1535–1914
(2nd edn, New Haven, 1975);
Volume 2 British–French Supremacy 1914–1945
(2nd edn, New Haven, 1979). Rashid Khalidi’s
Resurrecting Empire: Western Footprints and America’s Perilous Path in the Middle East
(Boston, 2004) argues that Western colonialism has continued to the present day.

Sir P. M. Sykes’s
History of Persia
(3rd edn, 2 vols, London, 1930) still holds its own for the period before Reza Shah. E. Monroe’s
Britain’s Moment in the Middle East 1914–71
(new and revised edn, London, 1981) is unlikely to be surpassed as an account of its subject and P. S. Khoury’s
Syria and the French Mandate: The Politics of Arab Nationalism 1920–45
is a penetrating study of the French role in the Anglo-French interregnum in the eastern Arab world. J. Wilson’s
The Authorized Biography of T. E. Lawrence
(London, 1987) is so exhaustive that it covers most aspects of this period of modern Arab history. International Crisis Group’s Middle East programme provides much-respected studies on flashpoints as they unfold across the contemporary Middle East, ranging from North Africa to Iran. The reports offer an invaluable introduction to the region’s conflicts based on primary sources and are freely available at www.crisis group.org.

For Turkey since the demise of the Ottoman Empire there is Lord Kinross’s
Atatürk: The Rebirth of a Nation
(5th edn, London, 1971) and for the post-Atatürk period of troubled Turkish democracy G. Lewis’s
Modern Turkey
(4th edn, London, 1974) and W. R. Hale’s
The Political and Economic Development of Turkey
(London, 1981). Erik Zurcher’s
Turkey: A Modern History
(London, 1998) is recommended. Ümit Cizre’s
Secular and Islamic Politics in Turkey: The Making of the Justice and Development Party
(London, 2008) contains a series of essays on the country’s evolution from Kemalism. Iran in the modern period before the Islamic Revolution is well covered in P. Avery’s
Modern Iran
(London, 1965) and N. Keddie’s
Iran: Religion, Politics and Society
(London, 1980). J. A. Bill and N. R. Louis’s
Musaddiq, Iranian Nationalism and Oil
(London, 1988) is a useful account of this crucial episode in modern Middle East history. Nikki Keddie’s
Modern Iran: Roots and Results of Revolution
(Yale, 2003) offers a good history of Iran up to and beyond the Islamic Revolution.

There are several books on the Arab states since the end of the Ottoman Empire and their eventual achievement of full independence from the European powers:

1
. E
GYPT

T. Little’s
Modern Egypt
(London, 1967) is to be recommended. P. Vatikiotis’s
The History of Modern Egypt, From Muhammad Ali to Mubarak
(London, 1991) is highly recommended. More specifically on the Nasser era, Gamal Abdul Nasser’s
Egypt’s Liberation: The Philo-sophy of the Revolution
(Buffalo, 1959) still repays study as a seminal manifesto. A. Nutting’s
Nasser
is an outstanding biography. P. Mansfield’s
Nasser’s Egypt
(2nd edn, London, 1969) was an attempt to outline his achievements during his lifetime. A. Sadat’s
In Search of Identity: An Autobiography
(London, 1978) reveals the profound difference in outlook of Nasser’s successor. W. R. Louis and R. Owen’s
Suez 1956: The Crisis and its Consequences
(Oxford, 1989) provides an essential assessment of this watershed in the modern history of the Middle East.

All the books by Mohammed Heikal, Egypt’s leading journalist and Nasser’s close friend, provide valuable insight but notably
The Road to Ramadan
(London, 1975) on Arab preparations for the 1973 war and Autumn
of Fury (London, 1983) on the events leading to Sadat’s assassination. D. Hopwood’s
Egypt: Politics and Society 1945–1981
can be warmly recommended and A. McDermott’s
Egypt from Nasser to Mubarak: A Flawed Revolution
(London, 1988) is a useful assessment of the whole post-revolutionary period. Timothy Mitchell’s
Colonising Egypt
(University of California Press, 1991) is a staple of university syllabi.

2
. S
YRIA

N. A. Ziadeh’s
Syria and Lebanon
(Troy, 1968) covers the French mandate and the earlier years of independence. Two outstanding books by Patrick Seale are essential reading not only for Syrian affairs but also for the post-war history of the Arab World:
The Struggle for Syria: A Study of Post-war Arab Politics, 1945–1958
(2nd edn, London, 1987) and
Asad: The Struggle for the Middle East
(London, 1988). T. Petran’s
Syria
(London, 1972) is still rewarding and D. Hopwood’s
Syria, 1948–1956: Politics and Society
is an excellent short survey of its subject. M. Ma’oz’s
Asad: The Sphinx of Damascus
(London, 1988) provides a useful Israeli view. Nikolaos Van Dam’s
The Struggle for Power in Syria
(London, 1996) is a microscopic breakdown of the sectarian composition of Syrian power by a former Dutch ambassador. Caroline Donati’s
L’Exception syrienne: Entre modernisation et résistance
(Paris, 2009) contains much background and detail on the post-Hafez al-Assad era, not available elsewhere.

3
. L
EBANON

First and foremost are the books by the Lebanese historian Kamal Salibi, notably
The Modern History of Lebanon
(London, 1977),
Crossroads to Civil War: Lebanon, 1958–1976
(Delmar, NY, 1976) and most recently
A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered
(London, 1988). There are various books by close Western observers of the modern Lebanese tragedy, of which H. Cobban’s
The Making of Modern Lebanon
(London, 1985) and J. C. Randal’s
Going All the Way: Christian Warlords, Israeli Adventures, and the War in Lebanon
(New York, 1983) are perhaps the best. Z. Schiff and E. Ya’ari’s
Israel’s Lebanon War
(New York, 1984) adds the Israeli dimension, but the impossibility of writing an up-to-date history of modern Lebanon is obvious. For the torment of the civil war following Israel’s
withdrawal from Beirut read the memoirs of former Lebanese foreign minister Elie Salem in
Violence & Diplomacy in Lebanon
(London, 1995). For two recent studies of the Lebanese Shia movement see Amal Saad-Ghorayeb,
Hizbu’llah: Politics and Religion
(London, 2002) by a Lebanese academic, and Augustus Richard Norton’s
Hezbollah: A Short History
(Princeton, 2007) for a concise introduction to the movement. More generally, Fouad Ajami’s
The Vanished Imam: Musa Al Sadr and the Shia of Lebanon
(Cornell University Press, 1992) provides an excellent background on Lebanon’s Shia revival.

4
. J
ORDAN

M. Wilson’s
King Abdullah, Britain and the Making of Jordan
(Cambridge, 1987) deals with the mandate and the early years of independence, as does A. Dearden’s
Jordan
(London, 1958). The autobiography by Hussein, King of Jordan,
Uneasy Lies the Head
(London, 1962), may be read in conjunction with an assessment after his thirty-five years on the throne in J. Lunt’s
Hussein of Jordan
(London, 1989). P. Gubser’s
Jordan: Crossroads of Middle Eastern Events
(London, 1979) places the kingdom in its modern context, although the latest events show that the Jordanian role is subject to continuous change. Kamal Salibi’s
History of Jordan
(London, 1998) is a unique contemporary account by an Amman-based academic. Adnan Abu-Odeh,
Jordanians, Palestinians, and the Hashemite Kingdom in the Middle East Peace Process
(2000) is a powerful account of East Bank–West Bank relations by a former senior member of the royal court.

5
. I
RAQ

For the early modern period S. Longrigg’s
Iraq 1900 to 1950
(London, 1953) remains the best account, and for more recent times P. Marr’s
The Modern History of Iraq
(Boulder and London, 1985) and P. Sluglett and M. Farouk-Sluglett’s
Iraq since 1958: From Revolution to Dictatorship
(London, 1987). H. Batatu’s
The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq: A study of Iraq’s Old Landed and Commercial Classes, and its Communists, Ba’athists and Free Officers
(Princeton, 1978) is still unequalled as a study of contemporary Iraqi society. D. Hiro’s
Neighbours Not Friends, Iraq and Iran after the Gulf Wars
(London, 2001) succinctly summarizes events over the 1990s.
Iraq under Siege: The Deadly Impact of Sanctions and War
, (South End Press, 2000), edited
by A. Arnove, details the roots of the 1991 US-Iraq war and the human price of sanctions; A. Cockburn’s
Out of the Ashes: The Resurrection of Saddam Hussein
(London, 2002) examines the acme of the Iraqi leader, ahead of any regime change; see also D. McDowall’s
A Modern History of the Kurds
(London, 2000). For the case for the weapons inspectors, read former UNSCOM chief R. Butler’s personal account in
The Greatest Threat: Iraq, Weapons of Mass Destruction, and the Crisis of Global Security
(New York, 2001). Charles Tripp’s
A History of Iraq
(Cambridge, 2002) is the leading political history of modern Iraq. Toby Dodge’s well-written
Inventing Iraq: The Failure of Nation-building and a History Denied
(New York, 2003) offers a biting critique of Britain’s role in the creation of modern Iraq.