neighbour
| búi
: In a legal context, neighbour often has a formal meaning: people who were called on to ‘witness’ the testimony of princapl figures in a case, and form a panel.
|
north
| noriur
. See directions.
|
ounce, ounces
| eyrir
, pl.
aurar
: A unit of weight, varying slightly through time, but roughly 27 grams. Eight ounces were equal to one mark.
|
outlawry
| útlegS, skoggangur, fjijrbaugsgariur
: Two of the Icelandic words, utlegd, literally meaning ‘lying, or sleeping, outside’, and
skóggangur
, ‘forest-walking’, stress the idea of the outlaw having been ejected from the safe boundaries of civilized society and being forced to live in the wild, alongside the animals and nature spirits, little better than an animal himself. The word
útlagi
(‘outlaw’) is closely related to
útlegð
, but has also taken on the additional meaning of ‘outside the law’, which for early Scandinavians was synonymous with ‘lying outside society’. Law was what made society. See also full outlawry and lesser outlawry.
|
panel
| kviður
: The panel was a form of ‘jury’ that delivered a verdict on the facts, motives and/or circumstances behind a case. They were not as important as witnesses, but could still carry a great deal of weight, especially if there were no witnesses to a particular action. The panels were composed of neighbours. Nine-man panels were called for more serious cases; five-man for less important ones. The verdict was based on the majority’s decision.
|
quarter
| ffórdungur
: Administratively, Iceland was divided into four quarters based on the four cardinal directions. See Introduction, p. xlvi and ‘Social and Political Structure’.
|
Quarter Court
| fjóriungsdómur
: Four Quarter Courts were established at the Althing in
c
. 965. See Introduction, pp. xlvi and ‘Social and Political Structure’.
|
Russia
| Gar&ariki
: Literally means ‘the realm of towns’, and refers very generally to the area running between the Baltic Sea and the White Sea in the north and the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea in the south. The name ‘Russia’ was originally drawn from the word ‘Rus’, the local name for the Scandinavian traders, mercenaries and adventurers who regularly travelled the rivers between the coast of the Baltic and Constantinople (then known as
Mikligardur
, ‘the great city’).
Gardariki
contained, among others, the towns and cities of Kiev, Novgorod, Staraja Ladoga, Izborsk, Bjeloozero, Rostov and Cher-nigov, all of which were controlled by the Scandinavians for some time between the ninth and eleventh centuries. It was argued in the past that the Scandinavians had a large role in establishing some of these towns, if not the original Russian state.
|
sacrifice
| Hót
: There is great uncertainty about the nature of pagan worship and cult-activities in Scandinavia, and just as the theology and mythology of the Nordic peoples seem to have varied according to area, it is highly questionable whether any standardized rules of ritual practice ever existed there. It should also be remembered that the population of Iceland came from all over Scandinavia, as well as from Ireland and the islands off Scotland. Religion was very much an individual matter, and practices varied. The few references to sacrifices in the sagas are somewhat vague, but these sometimes seem to have involved the ritual slaughter of animals. Human sacrifices are only specifically described in sources describing very early times, long before the time span of the sagas, for example in the
Saga of the Ynglings
, the first part of Snorri Sturluson’s
Heimskringla
.
|
scorn-pole
| nii
: In the sagas
nii
refers to two forms of slander that need to be distinguished. The physical form scorn-pole generally refers to figures made of wood that were understood by all to represent one or more persons in local society. These figures were sometimes depicted in some compromising sexual position. Such a public insult attracted attention and seriously damaged the honour of the person or persons in question. The figures were strictly illegal, and a common reason for killings and/or local feuds. See, for example,
Gisli Sursson’s Saga
, ch. 2. In
Egil’s Saga
, a scorn-pole with a horse’s head on it is used to place a curse on the king. For the verbal form of
nii
, see lampoon.
|
seeress
| vb’lva
: The magic rites (
seiSur
) performed by male magicians were essentially, and originally, a female activity. For a detailed account of a seeress using such a rite to gain knowledge of the future, see
Eirik the Red’s Saga
, ch. 4. Seeresses could also gain such knowledge by ‘sitting outside’ (
titiseta
) at night on graves, at crossroads or at other powerful natural sites. The most famous examples of prophecies in Old Icelandic literature are the eddic poems
Völuspd
(The Prophecy of the Seeress) and
Baldurs draumar
(The Dreams of Balder), both of which deal with the coming of Ragnarok (‘the fate of the gods’). See also magic rite and magician.
|
shieling
| sel
: A roughly constructed hut in the highland grazing pastures away from the farm, where shepherds and cowherders lived during the summer. Milking and the preparation of various dairy products took place here, as did other important farm activities like the collection of peat and charcoal burning (depending on the surroundings). This arrangement was well known throughout the Scandinavian countries from the earliest times.
|
shape-shifter
| hamrammur
, adj.: Closely associated with the berserks, those who were
hamrammir
(pl.) were believed to change their shape at night or in times of stress, or leave their bodies (which appeared asleep) and take the physical form of animals such as bears or wolves. There are again faint associations with shamanistic activities and figures known in folklore throughout the world, such as the werewolf. The transformation was not necessarily intentional. Three of the best examples in Icelandic literature are the figures of Kveldulf (literally ‘Night wolf’) in
Egil’s Saga
, ch. 1, and Sigmund and Sinfjotli in the legendary
Völsunga saga (The Saga of the Volsungs)
, ed. Jesse L. Byock (London: Penguin, 1999), ch. 8.
|
single combat
| einvígi
: The less formal fight between two men. This is differentiated from the formally organized duel which was fought according to defined rules and rituals.
|
slander
| niS
: See lampoon.
|
slave
| prall
: Slavery was quite an important aspect of Viking Age trade. A large number of slaves were taken from the Baltic nations and the western European countries that were raided and invaded by Scandinavians between the eighth and eleventh centuries. In addition, the Scandinavians had few scruples against taking slaves from the other Nordic countries. Judging from their names and appearance, a large number of the slaves mentioned in the sagas seem to have come from Ireland and Scotland. Stereotypically they are presented in the sagas as being stupid and lazy. The eddic poem
Rigspula
(The Chant of Rig) describes the mythical origins and the characteristics of the four main Scandinavian classes: the slaves, the farmers, the aristocracy and the kings. By law, slaves had hardly any rights at all, and they and their families could only be freed if their owners chose to do so, or somebody else bought their freedom: see freed slave. In the Icelandic Commonwealth, a slave who was wounded was entitled to one-third of the compensation money; the rest went to his owner.
|
south
| suiur
: See directions.
|
spirits
| See ghosts.
|
Spring Assembly
| vorping
: The local assembly, held each spring. They were thirteen in all and were the first regular assemblies to be held in Iceland. Lasting four to seven days between 7 and 27 May, they were jointly supervised by three godis. The Spring Assembly had a dual legal and economic function. It included a court of thirty-six men, twelve appointed by each of the godis, where local actions were heard, while major cases and those which could not be resolved locally were sent on to the Althing. In its other function it was a forum for settling debts, deciding prices and the like. Godis probably used the Spring Assembly to urge their followers to ride to the Althing; those who remained behind paid the costs of those who went.
|
sprinkled with water
| vatni ausinn
: Even before the arrival of Christianity, the Scandinavians practised a naming ceremony clearly similar to that involved in the modern-day ‘christening’. It is mentioned in eddic poems such as
Rígspula
(The Chant of Rig), st. 21, and
Hdvamdl
(The Sayings of the High One), st. 158. The action of sprinkling a child with water and naming it meant that the child was initiated into society. After this ceremony, a child could not be taken out to die of exposure (a common practice in pagan times).
|
steward
| stallari
: A high-ranking follower of the king, empowered to act as his representative at important meetings. The stewards were also responsible for preparations for war, and for overseeing other king’s men.
|
Summons Days
| stefnudagar
: The days during which someone could be summoned to appear at a given Spring Assembly or Althing for a legal case.
|
sworn brotherhood
| fóstbritiralag
: This was seen as another form of foster-brotherhood, but instead of being arranged by the parents (see foster-), it was a relationship that was decided by the individuals themselves. Sworn brothers literally were ‘blood-brothers’: they swore unending loyalty to each other, sealing this pact by going though a religious ceremony involving a form of symbolic rebirth, in which they joined blood and passed beneath an arch of raised turf. See also
Gisli Sursson’s Saga
, ch. 6.
|
tale
| pdttur
: A short narrative, often included as an episode in a larger whole, in many cases in a saga based on the life of a king.
|
temple
| hof
: In spite of the description of the ‘temple’ at Hofstadir (‘Temple Place’, see Introduction, p. xlv) and other temples mentioned in the sagas, there is no certainty that buildings erected for the sole purpose of pagan worship ever existed in Iceland or the other Scandinavian countries. To date, no such building has been found in archaeological excavations. In all likelihood, pagan rituals and sacrifices took place outdoors or in a specified area in certain large farmhouses belonging to priests, where the idols of the gods would also have been kept.
|
Thing
| alpingi
: See Althing.
|
thingman/men
| pingmadur/pingmenn
: Every free man and landowner was required to serve as a thingman (‘assembly man’) by aligning himself with a godi. He would either accompany the godi to assemblies and other functions or pay a tax supposed to cover the godi’s costs of attending them. See Introduction, pp. xlvi-xlvii and ‘Social and Political Structure’.
|
troll
| tröll
: Trolls in the minds of the Icelanders were not the huge, stupid figures that we read about in later Scandinavian wonder-tales and legends. At the time of the sagas, they were essentially evil nature spirits, a little like large dark elves. It is only in later times that they come to blend with the image of the Scandinavian giants.
|
unmanly behaviour
| ergi, regi
: The worst of all insults in the Scandinavian vocabulary was that of ‘unmanly behaviour’. The suggestion that a man was behaving like a woman could imply homosexuality or cowardice, or both.
|
Weapon Taking
| vopnatak
: The time when people were allowed to take up their weapons again at the end of a meeting of the Althing. Weapons were not permitted in the sanctified area of the courts (see Althing ). The term Weapon Taking came to signify the ending of the assembly and the moment that a sentence of outlawry came into effect (thus giving the outlaw some time to get away).
|
weight
| vœtt
: The equivalent of 160 marks, or about 40 kilos.
|
west
| vestur
: See directions.
|
Winter Nights
| vetumatur
: The period of two days when the winter began, around the middle of October. This was a particularly holy time of the year, when sacrifices were made to the disir, and other social activities such as games meetings and weddings often took place. See, for example,
Gisli Sursson’s Saga
, ch. 15. It was also the time when animals were slaughtered so that their meat could be stored over the winter.
|
