games
| leikar: Leikur
(sing.) in Icelandic contained the same breadth of meaning as ‘game’ in English. The games meetings described in the sagas would probably have included a whole range of ‘play’ activities. Essentially, they involved men’s sports, such as wrestling, ball games, ‘skin-throwing games’, ‘scraper games’ and horse-fights. Games of this kind took place whenever people came together, and seem to have formed a regular feature of assemblies and other gatherings (including the Althing) and religious festivals such as the Winter Nights. Sometimes prominent men invited people together specifically to take part in games.
|
games meeting
| leikmót
: Special gatherings where various games took place. These might last for several days, visitors staying in temporary
leikskdlar
(literally ‘games halls’, also occuring as a place-name in, for example,
The Saga of Hrafnkel Frey’s Godi
, ch. 3).
|
ghosts/spirits
| draugar, afturgöngur, haugbúar
: Ghosts in medieval Scandinavia were seen as being corporeal, and thus capable of wrestling or fighting with opponents. This idea is naturally associated with the ancient pagan belief in Scandinavia and elsewhere that the dead should be buried with the possessions that they were going to need in the next life, such as ships, horses and weapons: in some way, the body was going to live again and need these items. There are many examples in the sagas of people encountering or seeing ‘living ghosts’ inside grave mounds. These spirits were called
haugbúar
(literally ‘mound-dwellers’). Because of the fear of spirits walking again and disturbing the living, there were various measures that could be taken to ensure some degree of peace and quiet for the living: see, for example,
Egil’s Saga
, ch. 59, and
Gisli Sursson’s
Saga, chs. 14 and 17.
|
giant
| jotunn, risi
: According to Nordic mythology, the giants (
jötnar
) had existed from the dawn of time. In many ways, they can be seen as the personification of the more powerful natural elements and the enemies of the gods and mankind. The original belief was that they lived in the distant north and east injotunheim (‘the world of the giants’), where they were eternally planning the eventual overthrow of the gods. The final battle between them, Ragnarok (‘the fate of the gods’), would mark the end of the world. The original giants were clever and devious, and had an even greater knowledge of the world and the future than that which was available to Odin.
Risi
is a later coinage, when old beliefs were fading and the ancient giants were merging into the troll figure, which was also losing its original characteristics; it refers primarily to the physical size of these beings, which live in the mountains on the borders of civilization.
|
godi
| godi
: This word was little known outside Iceland in early Christian times, and seems to refer to a particularly Icelandic concept. A godi was a local chieftain who had legal and administrative responsibilities in Iceland. The name seems to have originally meant ‘priest’, or at least a person having a special relationship with gods or supernatural powers, and thus shows an early connection between religious and secular power. As time went on, however, the chief function of a godi came to be secular. The first godis were chosen from the leading families who settled Iceland in
c
. 870–930. See Introduction, pp. xlvii and ‘Social and Political Structure’.
|
godord
| godord
: The authority and rank of a godi, including his social and legal responsibilities towards his thingmen.
|
halberd
| atgeir: Atgeir
is translated as halberd, which it seems to have resembled even though no specimens of this combination of spear and axe have been found in archaeological excavations in Iceland.
|
hall
| skáli: Skálli
was used both for large halls such as those used by kings, and for the main farmhouse on the typical Icelandic farm. (See illustrations in ‘The Farm’.)
|
hand
| spönn
: A measurement, originally the width of a man’s hand (approximately 16–17 cm).
|
hayfield
| tún
: An enclosed field for hay cultivation close to or surrounding a farm house. This was the only ‘cultivated’ part of a farm and produced the best hay. Other hay, generally of lesser quality, came from the meadows which could be a good distance from the farm itself. (See
Figure 3
in ‘The Farm’.)
|
hayfield wall
| túngardur
: A wall of stones surrounding the hayfield in order to protect the haystacks from the livestock.
|
haystack wall/yard
| stakkgarður
: A small enclosed yard to protect the haystacks from the livestock.
|
hersir
| hersir
: A local leader in western and northern Norway; his rank was hereditary. Originally the hersirs were probably those who took command when the men of the district were called to arms.
|
high seat
| öndvegi
: The central section of one bench in the hall (at the inner end, or in the middle of the ‘senior’ side, to the right as one entered) was the rightful high seat of the owner of the farm. Even though it is usually referred to in English as the ‘high seat’, this position was not necessarily higher in elevation, only in honour. Opposite the owner sat the guest of honour.
|
high-seat pillars
| öndvegissúlur
: The high seat was often adorned with decorated high-seat pillars, which had a religious significance. There are several accounts of how those emigrating from Norway to Iceland took their high-seat pillars with them. As they approached land they threw the carved wood posts overboard. It was believed that the pillars would be guided by divine forces to the place where the travellers were destined to live. See, for example,
The Saga of the People of Laxardal
, ch. 3.
|
homespun (cloth)
| vaimdl
: For centuries wool and woollen products were Iceland’s chief exports, especially in the form of strong and durable homespun cloth. It could be bought and sold in bolts or made up into items such as homespun cloaks. There were strict regulations on homespun, as it was used as a standard exchange product and often referred to in ounces, meaning its equivalent value expressed as a weight in silver. One ounce could equal three to six ells of homespun, one ell being roughly 50 cm.
|
homespun cloak
| vararfeldur
: A cloak made of homespun, woven from wool with a shaggy exterior like sheepskin.
|
horse-fight
| hestaatjhestavig
: A popular sport among the Icelanders, which seems to have taken place especially in the autumn, particularly at Autumn Meetings. Two horses were goaded to fight against each other, until one was killed or ran away. Understandably, emotions ran high, and horse-fights commonly led to feuds.
|
hundred
| bundrad
: A ‘long hundred’ or one hundred and twenty. The expression, however, rarely refers to an accurate number, rather a generalized ‘round’ figure.
|
judgement circle
| dómhringur
: The courts of heathen times appear to have been surrounded by a judgement circle, marked out with hazel poles and ropes, where judgements were made or announced: see the description of the Gula Assembly in
Egil’s Saga
, ch.57. The circle was sacrosanct, and weapons were not allowed inside it – nor was violence.
|
knorr
| knorr
: An ocean-going cargo vessel: see also ‘Ships’.
|
lampoon
| nii
: In the sagas
nii
refers to two forms of slander that need to be distinguished. The verbal form lampoon commonly was slanderous verse containing hints of lack of masculinity or deviant sexual practices. Such verses obviously spread like wildfire, and were capable of doing great damage to a person’s honour and respect. Insults of this kind were not only illegal; they also tended to start or escalate serious feuds because of the element of dishonour. As the eddic poem
Hdvamdl
(The Sayings of the High One) states, ‘the tongue is the slayer of the head’ (tunga er höfuð bani’):
Hávamál
, st. 73. For the other form of
níð
, see scorn-pole.
|
Law Council
| Lögrétta
: The legislative assembly at the Althing. See also Introduction, pp. xlvi–xlvii and ‘Social and Political Structure’.
|
Law Rock
| Lögberg
: The raised spot at the
Althing
at Thingvellir, where the Lawspeaker may have recited the law code, and where public announcements and speeches were made. See also Introduction, pp. xlvi–xlvii and ‘Social and Political Structure’.
|
Lawspeaker
| logsogumadur, logmadur
: means literally ‘the man who recites the law’, referring to the time before the advent of writing when the Lawspeaker had to learn the law by heart and recite one-third of it every year, perhaps at the Law Rock. If he was unsure about the text, he had to consult a team of five or more ‘lawmen’ (
lögmenn
) who knew the law well. The Lawspeaker presided over the assembly at the Althing and was responsible for the preservation and clarification of legal tradition. He could exert influence, as in the case about whether the Icelanders should accept Christianity, but should not be regarded as having ruled the country. See also Introduction, pp. xlvi-xlvii and ‘Social and Political Structure.’
|
leather (sleeping) sack
| hiiifat
: A large leather bag used by travellers for sleeping.
|
lesser outlawry
| jjorbaugsgariur
: Differed from full or greater outlawry in that the lesser outlaw was only banished from society for three years. Furthermore, his land was not confiscated, and money was put aside to support his family. This made it possible for him to return later and continue a normal life.
Fjörbaugsgarður
means literally ‘life-ring enclosure’. ‘Life-ring’ refers to the silver ring that the outlaw originally had to pay the godi in order to spare his life. (This was later fixed at a value of one mark.) ‘Enclosure’ refers to three sacrosanct homes no more than one day’s journey from each other where the outlaw was permitted to stay while he arranged passage out of Iceland. He was allowed limited movement along the tracks directly joining these farms, and en route to the ship which would take him abroad. Anywhere else the outlaw was fair game and could be killed without redress. He had to leave the country and begin his sentence within the space of three summers after the verdict, but once abroad retained normal rights.
|
longhouse
| skáli
: See hall.
|
longship
| langskip
: The largest warship. See also ‘Ships’.
|
magic rite
| seidur
: The exact nature of magic ritual, or
seidur
, is somewhat obscure. It appears that it was originally only practised by women. Although there are several accounts of males who performed this rite (including the god Odin), they are almost always looked down on as having engaged in an ‘effeminate’ activity. The magic rite seems to have had two main purposes: a spell to influence people or the elements (as in
The Saga of the People of Laxardal
, chs. 35–7, and
Gisli Sursson’s Saga
, ch. 18), and a means of finding out about the future (as in
Eirik the Red’s Saga
, ch. 4). There are evidently parallels between
seidur
and shamanistic rituals such as those carried out by the Lapps and Native Americans. See also
seeress
.
|
magician
| seidmadur
: Literally means ‘a man who practises
seiSur
’. See also magic rite.
|
main room
| stofa
: A room off the hall of a farmhouse. See also ‘The Farm’.
|
mark
| mörk
: A measurement of weight, eight ounces, approximately 214 grams.
|
Moving Days
| fardagar
: Four successive days in the seventh week of ‘summer’ (in May) during which householders in Iceland could change their abode.
|
nature spirit
| vattur
: There were various kinds of nature spirits that the Icelanders (and other Scandinavians) believed in, and sometimes gave sacrifices to. There are early references to elves (
dlfar
) in mainland Scandinavia. Like their modern-day equivalents, the ‘hidden people’ (a generic expression used in both Norway and Iceland), were of human size. Even closer to nature were the guardian spirits (
landvœttir
), which inhabited the landscape. The well-being of the inhabitants of the country depended on their welfare and support, as can be seen in
Egil s Saga
, ch. 58, when Egil raises a scorn-pole facing the guardian spirits of Norway. According to the earliest Icelandic law, Ulfljot’s Law, people approaching Iceland by sea had to remove the dragon heads from the prows of their ships to avoid frightening the guardian spirits.
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