The Happiness of Pursuit: What Neuroscience Can Teach Us About the Good Life (32 page)
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Authors: Shimon Edelman
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9
CAUSAL INFERENCE plays a key role in perception (Shams and Beierholm 2010) and in reasoning (Gopnik et al. 2004). An analysis of intervention as Bayesian “explaining away” can be found in Steyvers et al. (2003). Tamar Kushnir and Alison Gopnik (2005) found that children trust their own interventions much more than observation. People take this difference into account when making inferences from contingency to agency (Moore et al. 2009), as do rats (Leising et al. 2008). There is some evidence of causal and analogical reasoning (that is, transfer to new situations) in New Caledonian crows (Taylor et al. 2009).
CAUSAL INFERENCE plays a key role in perception (Shams and Beierholm 2010) and in reasoning (Gopnik et al. 2004). An analysis of intervention as Bayesian “explaining away” can be found in Steyvers et al. (2003). Tamar Kushnir and Alison Gopnik (2005) found that children trust their own interventions much more than observation. People take this difference into account when making inferences from contingency to agency (Moore et al. 2009), as do rats (Leising et al. 2008). There is some evidence of causal and analogical reasoning (that is, transfer to new situations) in New Caledonian crows (Taylor et al. 2009).
10
Joshua Greene and Jonathan Cohen (2004) offer an introduction to CONSEQUENTIALIST ETHICS; see also Edelman (2008a, ch. 10).
Joshua Greene and Jonathan Cohen (2004) offer an introduction to CONSEQUENTIALIST ETHICS; see also Edelman (2008a, ch. 10).
11
From Shakespeare’s
A Midsummer Night’s Dream
, act V, scene I, lines 19–22.
From Shakespeare’s
A Midsummer Night’s Dream
, act V, scene I, lines 19–22.
12
Deviations from routine, which constitutes a large proportion of human activity (Eagle and Pentland 2009; Song et al. 2010), are relevant in INFERRING AGENCY (Auvray, Lenay, and Stewart 2009; Waytz et al. 2010). The evolution of agency in the deterministic universe is explained by Dennett (2003a).
Deviations from routine, which constitutes a large proportion of human activity (Eagle and Pentland 2009; Song et al. 2010), are relevant in INFERRING AGENCY (Auvray, Lenay, and Stewart 2009; Waytz et al. 2010). The evolution of agency in the deterministic universe is explained by Dennett (2003a).
13
Daniel Wegner (2004, p. 688) explains that “the whole idea of a ‘PERSON’ is an elegant accounting system for making sense of actions and ascribing them to constructed entities that are useful for purposes of social justice and the facilitation of social interaction.” From the computational standpoint, the “person” construct is seen to facilitate learning (Glymour 2004).
Daniel Wegner (2004, p. 688) explains that “the whole idea of a ‘PERSON’ is an elegant accounting system for making sense of actions and ascribing them to constructed entities that are useful for purposes of social justice and the facilitation of social interaction.” From the computational standpoint, the “person” construct is seen to facilitate learning (Glymour 2004).
14
Convergence between intrapersonal PROSPECTION (Roberts and Feeney 2009) and interpersonal PERSPECTIVE-TAKING suggests that the same causes of mind perception toward others might drive mind perception toward one’s future self (Waytz et al. 2010). As a GENERATIVE predictive model, a representation of the Self can be implemented by a mechanism that is widely applicable across cognition and therefore amenable to evolutionary reuse (Anderson 2010).
Convergence between intrapersonal PROSPECTION (Roberts and Feeney 2009) and interpersonal PERSPECTIVE-TAKING suggests that the same causes of mind perception toward others might drive mind perception toward one’s future self (Waytz et al. 2010). As a GENERATIVE predictive model, a representation of the Self can be implemented by a mechanism that is widely applicable across cognition and therefore amenable to evolutionary reuse (Anderson 2010).
15
The categorization of
Homo sapiens
as a GENERALIST species is advanced by Dobzhansky (1972).
The categorization of
Homo sapiens
as a GENERALIST species is advanced by Dobzhansky (1972).
16
Positive affect is known to be an implicit motivator (Custers and Aarts 2005). POSITIVE MOOD broadens associations and facilitates creativity (Bar 2009; Isen 2001). The implications of the differences between modern and ancestral environments for the motivation for, and the ease of, learning are discussed in Geary (2009).
Positive affect is known to be an implicit motivator (Custers and Aarts 2005). POSITIVE MOOD broadens associations and facilitates creativity (Bar 2009; Isen 2001). The implications of the differences between modern and ancestral environments for the motivation for, and the ease of, learning are discussed in Geary (2009).
17
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi and Jeremy Hunter (2003) describe a typical application of mood sampling to the study of FLOW and happiness (cf. Collins, Sarkisian, and Winner 2009). People’s enjoyment of overcoming obstacles has been studied, for instance, by Labroo and Kim (2009).
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi and Jeremy Hunter (2003) describe a typical application of mood sampling to the study of FLOW and happiness (cf. Collins, Sarkisian, and Winner 2009). People’s enjoyment of overcoming obstacles has been studied, for instance, by Labroo and Kim (2009).
18
In the Canadian film
One Week
, written and directed by Michael McGowan, the protagonist, Ben Tyler, asks a woman he met on a trail, hiking in the Banff National Park, “What would you be doing if you had one week to live?” She replies, “I’d be doing what I am doing NOW.”
In the Canadian film
One Week
, written and directed by Michael McGowan, the protagonist, Ben Tyler, asks a woman he met on a trail, hiking in the Banff National Park, “What would you be doing if you had one week to live?” She replies, “I’d be doing what I am doing NOW.”
19
For reviews of the benefits of POSITIVE AFFECT for decision making and problem solving, see Isen (2001, 2008). These benefits are not indiscriminate; rather, “positive affect enables flexible thinking about topics that people want or have to think about” (Ashby, Isen, and Turken 1999, p. 531). Furthermore, “for a complete theory of positive affect, it is necessary to understand why certain things make people happy, even if it were known that dopamine is released when people are happy, and why dopamine release has the particular consequences it does on cognition.” Interestingly, better problem-solving abilities correlate with less depression, even in octogenarians (Margrett et al. 2010).
For reviews of the benefits of POSITIVE AFFECT for decision making and problem solving, see Isen (2001, 2008). These benefits are not indiscriminate; rather, “positive affect enables flexible thinking about topics that people want or have to think about” (Ashby, Isen, and Turken 1999, p. 531). Furthermore, “for a complete theory of positive affect, it is necessary to understand why certain things make people happy, even if it were known that dopamine is released when people are happy, and why dopamine release has the particular consequences it does on cognition.” Interestingly, better problem-solving abilities correlate with less depression, even in octogenarians (Margrett et al. 2010).
20
The effects of positive mood on CREATIVITY are reviewed by Barbara Fredrickson (1998). Ed Diener, Richard Lucas, and Christie Napa Scollon (2006, p. 307), noting that positive moods facilitate a variety of approach behaviors and positive outcomes, conclude: “Thus, the ubiquity of a positive emotional set point, in concert with the less frequent experience of unpleasant emotions, likely results from the ADAPTIVE NATURE OF FREQUENT POSITIVE EMOTIONS.”
The effects of positive mood on CREATIVITY are reviewed by Barbara Fredrickson (1998). Ed Diener, Richard Lucas, and Christie Napa Scollon (2006, p. 307), noting that positive moods facilitate a variety of approach behaviors and positive outcomes, conclude: “Thus, the ubiquity of a positive emotional set point, in concert with the less frequent experience of unpleasant emotions, likely results from the ADAPTIVE NATURE OF FREQUENT POSITIVE EMOTIONS.”
21
Possible anatomical links between the brain circuits involved in HEDONIA AND EUDAIMONIA and connections to the so-called default network (Mason et al. 2007), are listed in Kringelbach and Berridge (2009).
Possible anatomical links between the brain circuits involved in HEDONIA AND EUDAIMONIA and connections to the so-called default network (Mason et al. 2007), are listed in Kringelbach and Berridge (2009).
22
For a view of the narrative Self as the “CENTER OF NARRATIVE GRAVITY,” see Dennett (1991). The collection titled
The Mind’s I
(Hofstadter and Dennett 1981) contains some fascinating stories that shed light on many aspects of selves, including their physical location.
For a view of the narrative Self as the “CENTER OF NARRATIVE GRAVITY,” see Dennett (1991). The collection titled
The Mind’s I
(Hofstadter and Dennett 1981) contains some fascinating stories that shed light on many aspects of selves, including their physical location.
23
Readers who feel that they have finally had enough of my repeated appeals to FICTIONAL CHARACTERS may wish to consult Garfield (2006), who wrote that “fictions can constitute worlds against which truth can be assessed, despite the fact that those worlds are themselves fictional.” As to how the thoughts of the dead can affect the living, see Edelman (2008a, pp. 444–447).
Readers who feel that they have finally had enough of my repeated appeals to FICTIONAL CHARACTERS may wish to consult Garfield (2006), who wrote that “fictions can constitute worlds against which truth can be assessed, despite the fact that those worlds are themselves fictional.” As to how the thoughts of the dead can affect the living, see Edelman (2008a, pp. 444–447).
24
Dan Lloyd’s “Music of the Hemispheres,”
http://indexmagazine.com/vid-music_of_hemispheres.html
, describes a practical approach to turning brain dynamics into actual MUSIC.
Dan Lloyd’s “Music of the Hemispheres,”
http://indexmagazine.com/vid-music_of_hemispheres.html
, describes a practical approach to turning brain dynamics into actual MUSIC.
25
Bloom’s piece, titled “First Person Plural,” appeared in the
Atlantic
in November 2008.
Bloom’s piece, titled “First Person Plural,” appeared in the
Atlantic
in November 2008.
26
Thomas Nagel’s celebrated paper “What Is It Like to Be a Bat?” (1974) marks the origin of this kind of philosophical analysis. Nagel’s claim that the answer to his question is unknowable (owing to the nonexistence of the mode of knowledge that Dennett calls HETEROPHENOMENOLOGY) has been disputed; see Dennett (1991, 2003b) and Clark (2000, p.129). Practical aspects of these issues as they apply in medicine are discussed in Merker (2007). For a computational treatment by a
very
informed science fiction author, see the chapter titled “Wang’s Carpets” in Greg Egan’s novel
Diaspora
(1997).
Thomas Nagel’s celebrated paper “What Is It Like to Be a Bat?” (1974) marks the origin of this kind of philosophical analysis. Nagel’s claim that the answer to his question is unknowable (owing to the nonexistence of the mode of knowledge that Dennett calls HETEROPHENOMENOLOGY) has been disputed; see Dennett (1991, 2003b) and Clark (2000, p.129). Practical aspects of these issues as they apply in medicine are discussed in Merker (2007). For a computational treatment by a
very
informed science fiction author, see the chapter titled “Wang’s Carpets” in Greg Egan’s novel
Diaspora
(1997).
27
The identification of experience with a TRAJECTORY through a state space is introduced by Spivey (2006) and defended and analyzed in great detail by Fekete and Edelman (2011).
The identification of experience with a TRAJECTORY through a state space is introduced by Spivey (2006) and defended and analyzed in great detail by Fekete and Edelman (2011).
28
The notion of JUST SEEING, as distinguished from Wittgenstein’s SEEING AS, is discussed in Edelman (2009); see also Fekete and Edelman (2011).
The notion of JUST SEEING, as distinguished from Wittgenstein’s SEEING AS, is discussed in Edelman (2009); see also Fekete and Edelman (2011).
29
In real life, the ZOMBIE state is approximated by the pathological condition known as absence seizures (Metzinger 2003).
In real life, the ZOMBIE state is approximated by the pathological condition known as absence seizures (Metzinger 2003).
30
For an introduction to the functional neuroanatomy of VERTEBRATE-LIKE EXPERIENCE, which requires a very particular kind of neural dynamics, see Merker (2007). For a fully human-like experience, a human-like cortex is needed (Merker 2004). The four functional ingredients of the PHENOMENAL SELF are from Metzinger (2003). Simple ways to induce an out-of-body experience in normal subjects have been explored by Blanke and Metzinger (2009).
For an introduction to the functional neuroanatomy of VERTEBRATE-LIKE EXPERIENCE, which requires a very particular kind of neural dynamics, see Merker (2007). For a fully human-like experience, a human-like cortex is needed (Merker 2004). The four functional ingredients of the PHENOMENAL SELF are from Metzinger (2003). Simple ways to induce an out-of-body experience in normal subjects have been explored by Blanke and Metzinger (2009).
31
The logical absurdity and psychological vapidity of the classical notion of FREE WILL have been pointed out by Hume (1740) and by Voltaire (1752/1924). See Wegner (2004) for a modern psychological stance; Gier and Kjellberg (2004) for a comparative-philosophical perspective; and Edelman (2008a, ch. 10) for an integrated treatment.
The logical absurdity and psychological vapidity of the classical notion of FREE WILL have been pointed out by Hume (1740) and by Voltaire (1752/1924). See Wegner (2004) for a modern psychological stance; Gier and Kjellberg (2004) for a comparative-philosophical perspective; and Edelman (2008a, ch. 10) for an integrated treatment.
32
Because it is not possible to DISTINGUISH DREAMING FROM REALITY (except on statistical grounds by means that are necessarily fallible because the baseline statistics can be fantasized or subverted by an evil demon in charge of the simulated reality), the rational course of action is to take reality at face value (Edelman 2011b). This implies that even a first-person phenomenal insight into the nature of reality has no practical consequences: you can be dead sure that this is all just a dream, but this intuitive certainty too can be an illusion. However, to adhere to this principle, one has either to remember it or to be able to derive it, which may not be possible in various states of reduced cognitive function, including dreaming, or being simulated on inferior hardware. You may have suspected all along that enlightenment is overrated. Now you know why.
Because it is not possible to DISTINGUISH DREAMING FROM REALITY (except on statistical grounds by means that are necessarily fallible because the baseline statistics can be fantasized or subverted by an evil demon in charge of the simulated reality), the rational course of action is to take reality at face value (Edelman 2011b). This implies that even a first-person phenomenal insight into the nature of reality has no practical consequences: you can be dead sure that this is all just a dream, but this intuitive certainty too can be an illusion. However, to adhere to this principle, one has either to remember it or to be able to derive it, which may not be possible in various states of reduced cognitive function, including dreaming, or being simulated on inferior hardware. You may have suspected all along that enlightenment is overrated. Now you know why.
33
Ruess to Waldo Ruess, November 11, 1934, in W. L. Rusho,
Everett Ruess: A Vagabond for Beauty
(Salt Lake City: Peregrine Smith Books, 1983), pp. 179–180.
NOTES TO CHAPTER 7Ruess to Waldo Ruess, November 11, 1934, in W. L. Rusho,
Everett Ruess: A Vagabond for Beauty
(Salt Lake City: Peregrine Smith Books, 1983), pp. 179–180.
1
An ongoing study, involving thousands of people, that uses an iPhone application to sample phone owners’ patterns of MIND WANDERING and subjective well-being (Killingsworth and Gilbert 2010) has yielded some results that bear on the “Prometheus on parole” scenario. First, people’s minds appear to wander frequently, regardless of the activity they are engaged in. Second, people are less happy when their minds are wandering than when they are not (compare this with the idea of “flow” discussed in Chapter 6). The negative effect, however, is due to a large extent to bouts of thinking about unpleasant things, which suggests, unsurprisingly, that while traveling mentally you should avoid visiting nasty places. I might add that if you
are
in a place “where but to think is to be full of sorrow” (as Keats put it in “Ode to a Nightingale”) to begin with, then any travel would seem to be good for you.
An ongoing study, involving thousands of people, that uses an iPhone application to sample phone owners’ patterns of MIND WANDERING and subjective well-being (Killingsworth and Gilbert 2010) has yielded some results that bear on the “Prometheus on parole” scenario. First, people’s minds appear to wander frequently, regardless of the activity they are engaged in. Second, people are less happy when their minds are wandering than when they are not (compare this with the idea of “flow” discussed in Chapter 6). The negative effect, however, is due to a large extent to bouts of thinking about unpleasant things, which suggests, unsurprisingly, that while traveling mentally you should avoid visiting nasty places. I might add that if you
are
in a place “where but to think is to be full of sorrow” (as Keats put it in “Ode to a Nightingale”) to begin with, then any travel would seem to be good for you.
2
This statement, which according to Dave Barry contains his entire PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE, is found on the very first page of
Dave Barry’s Bad Habits
(Barry 1993).
This statement, which according to Dave Barry contains his entire PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE, is found on the very first page of
Dave Barry’s Bad Habits
(Barry 1993).
3
This answer, given by Shimon Ben Zoma to the question “WHOSOEVER IS RICH?,” is recorded in the Talmud (Mishna, Avot 4).
This answer, given by Shimon Ben Zoma to the question “WHOSOEVER IS RICH?,” is recorded in the Talmud (Mishna, Avot 4).
4
Lao Tze (1904).
Lao Tze (1904).
5
The historical meeting between ALEXANDER AND DIOGENES in Corinth is mentioned by Jorge Luis Borges in a 1953 essay, “The Dialogues of Ascetic and King” (1953/1999, p. 382). I am indebted to Björn Merker for sharing with me parts of his unpublished manuscript “Sapta Svapna Sutra” (“Seven Dreams Dialogue”), in which the choice between world conquest and self-conquest is framed by an imaginary debate between the Buddha and Genghis Khan.
The historical meeting between ALEXANDER AND DIOGENES in Corinth is mentioned by Jorge Luis Borges in a 1953 essay, “The Dialogues of Ascetic and King” (1953/1999, p. 382). I am indebted to Björn Merker for sharing with me parts of his unpublished manuscript “Sapta Svapna Sutra” (“Seven Dreams Dialogue”), in which the choice between world conquest and self-conquest is framed by an imaginary debate between the Buddha and Genghis Khan.
6
The optimality of having one’s desires coincide with one’s means is backed empirically by a recent paper whose title is “Is Happiness Having What You Want, Wanting What You Have, or Both?” and whose conclusion is: “Both” (Larsen and McKibban 2008, p. 371).
The optimality of having one’s desires coincide with one’s means is backed empirically by a recent paper whose title is “Is Happiness Having What You Want, Wanting What You Have, or Both?” and whose conclusion is: “Both” (Larsen and McKibban 2008, p. 371).
7
The value of SELF-KNOWLEDGE is a central tenet of all three great philosophical traditions: Greek (Aristotle 350 B.C.E.; Nagel 1972) Chinese (Tze 1904, ch. 33), and Indian (Eliot 1921, p. 475).
The value of SELF-KNOWLEDGE is a central tenet of all three great philosophical traditions: Greek (Aristotle 350 B.C.E.; Nagel 1972) Chinese (Tze 1904, ch. 33), and Indian (Eliot 1921, p. 475).
8
The SAUSAGE simile is adapted from Birdsong (1989, p. 25), who decried the reliability of subjective judgments of grammaticality by comparing them to hot dogs.
The SAUSAGE simile is adapted from Birdsong (1989, p. 25), who decried the reliability of subjective judgments of grammaticality by comparing them to hot dogs.
9
The Royal Society’s motto,
NULLIUS IN VERBA
, is a contraction of the following couplet from Horace’s
Epistles
, Book I.I, lines 13–14:
The Royal Society’s motto,
NULLIUS IN VERBA
, is a contraction of the following couplet from Horace’s
Epistles
, Book I.I, lines 13–14:
Ac ne forte roges, quo me duce, quo lare tuter,
Nullius addictus iurare in verba magistri.
(Lest by chance you ask who leads me, by which household god I am sheltered, I swear by the words of no master.)
10
The lines beginning with “NOW UNDERSTAND ME WELL . . .” by Walt Whitman are quoted from
Leaves of Grass
:
Song of the Open Road
(1892/1990, 82:14).
The lines beginning with “NOW UNDERSTAND ME WELL . . .” by Walt Whitman are quoted from
Leaves of Grass
:
Song of the Open Road
(1892/1990, 82:14).
11
I thank Björn Merker for suggesting to me that a past history of consistent rewards pushes people to persevere in a course of action that may have exhausted its use. The appetite for NOVELTY and the construal and appreciation of reward are, of course, expected to vary widely between individuals, as attested by many studies. One of the most fascinating findings in this domain is that of Chen, Burton, Greenberger, and Dmitrieva (1999), who looked for possible genetic factors contributing to long-range migrations, such as the millennia-long trek that eventually brought humans out of Africa to the tip of South America. This study revealed a strong correlation between the population’s locus along the migration arc and the preponderance in that population of long alleles (for example, 7-repeats) of the DRD4 gene—a gene that codes for a dopamine receptor that has been linked to novelty-seeking personality, as well as to hyperactivity and risk-taking behaviors.
I thank Björn Merker for suggesting to me that a past history of consistent rewards pushes people to persevere in a course of action that may have exhausted its use. The appetite for NOVELTY and the construal and appreciation of reward are, of course, expected to vary widely between individuals, as attested by many studies. One of the most fascinating findings in this domain is that of Chen, Burton, Greenberger, and Dmitrieva (1999), who looked for possible genetic factors contributing to long-range migrations, such as the millennia-long trek that eventually brought humans out of Africa to the tip of South America. This study revealed a strong correlation between the population’s locus along the migration arc and the preponderance in that population of long alleles (for example, 7-repeats) of the DRD4 gene—a gene that codes for a dopamine receptor that has been linked to novelty-seeking personality, as well as to hyperactivity and risk-taking behaviors.
12
Concerning the challenge of SELF-CONQUEST, the Talmud (Mishna, Avot 4) contains the following exchange: “Whosoever is mighty? He who conquers his passions, as it is written (Proverbs 16:32) ‘One who is slow to anger is better than the mighty, and one whose temper is controlled than one who captures a city.’” In the Muslim tradition, self-conquest is called the “greater jihad” or
jihad al-nafs
(the struggle against the soul) and is usually elevated over the “lesser jihad” or holy war; cf. Ibn al-Jawz (1998, p. 122): “I reflected over jihad al-nafs and realised it to be the greatest jihad.”
Concerning the challenge of SELF-CONQUEST, the Talmud (Mishna, Avot 4) contains the following exchange: “Whosoever is mighty? He who conquers his passions, as it is written (Proverbs 16:32) ‘One who is slow to anger is better than the mighty, and one whose temper is controlled than one who captures a city.’” In the Muslim tradition, self-conquest is called the “greater jihad” or
jihad al-nafs
(the struggle against the soul) and is usually elevated over the “lesser jihad” or holy war; cf. Ibn al-Jawz (1998, p. 122): “I reflected over jihad al-nafs and realised it to be the greatest jihad.”
13
For the first computationally inspired exploration of the idea of THE SOCIETY OF MIND, see Minsky (1985).
For the first computationally inspired exploration of the idea of THE SOCIETY OF MIND, see Minsky (1985).
14
The demonstrator killed by the police on June 2, 1967, was BENNO OHNESORG; the officer who shot him was later identified as an agent of the East German secret police, the Stasi (Kulish 2009).
The demonstrator killed by the police on June 2, 1967, was BENNO OHNESORG; the officer who shot him was later identified as an agent of the East German secret police, the Stasi (Kulish 2009).
15
The abolitionist JOHN BROWN was hanged by the State of Virginia on December 2, 1859.
The abolitionist JOHN BROWN was hanged by the State of Virginia on December 2, 1859.
16
For an illuminating discussion of the roots of PRACTICAL-WISDOM humanism in Eastern and Western thinking, see Gier (2002).
For an illuminating discussion of the roots of PRACTICAL-WISDOM humanism in Eastern and Western thinking, see Gier (2002).
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