The Half Has Never Been Told: Slavery and the Making of American Capitalism (95 page)

31
.
Natchez Gazette
, March 11, 1826; John Hope Franklin and Loren F. Schweniger,
Runaway Slaves: Rebels on the Plantation
(New York, 1999).

32
. Elisha Winfield Green,
Life of Elisha Winfield Green
. . . (Maysville, KY, 1888), 3.

33
.
Emancipator
, 1820; Hiram Hilty,
North Carolina Quakers and Slavery
(Richmond, IL, 1984), 93; Stephen Weeks,
Southern Quakers and Slavery: A Study in Institutional History
(New York, 1968); Ryan P. Jordan,
Slavery and the Meetinghouse: The Quakers and the Abolitionist Dilemma
(Bloomington, IN, 2007), 7.

34
. Benjamin Lundy,
Life, Travels, and Opinions of Benjamin Lundy
(Philadelphia, 1847), 15–24.

35
. Phineas Norton, Haiti trip notebook, 1826, Th. Kennedy to Meeting for Sufferings, 1826, and “Account of Negroes,” Manumission Society Papers, SHC.

36
.
Emancipator
, September 1820, 86; Merton Dillon,
Benjamin Lundy and the Struggle for Negro Freedom
(Urbana, IL, 1966), 117–120;
Genius of Universal Emancipation
, September 12, 1825.

37
.
Genius of Universal Emancipation
, January 20, 1827, February 24, 1827, March 31, 1827; Gudmestad,
Troublesome Commerce
, 155–156.

38
. Henry Mayer,
All On Fire: William Lloyd Garrison and the Abolition of Slavery
(New York, 1998); C. Peter Ripley,
The Black Abolitionist Papers: The United States, 1830–1846
(Chapel Hill, NC, 1991), 7–10; Lundy,
Life;
John L. Thomas,
The Liberator: William Lloyd Garrison
(Boston, 1963), 106–113.

39
.
Freedom’s Journal
, March 16, 1827. The asterisk indicates that this was an abbreviation, but it was understood that the name was “Woolfolk.”

40
. Stephen Kantrowitz,
More Than Freedom: Fighting for Black Citizenship in a White Republic, 1829–1889
(New York, 2013), 13–40; Peter Hinks,
To Awaken My Afflicted Brethren: David Walker and the Problem of Antebellum Slave Resistance
(University Park, PA, 1997).

41
. David Walker,
Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World
(Boston, 1829), 12–26, 43, 62–75.

42
. David E. Swift,
Black Prophets of Justice
(Baton Rouge, LA, 1989), 23–41; Walker,
Appeal
, 65, 71–72.

43
. Ford,
Deliver Us from Evil
, 332–338.

44
. Hinks,
Awaken My Afflicted Brethren
, 269–270;
Liberator
, January 22, 1831.

45
. The literature on the abolitionist movement is vast. Within it, a few good starting points that do not silence the voices of the formerly enslaved include: Benjamin Quarles,
Black Abolitionists
(New York, 1969); R. J. M. Blackett,
Building an Antislavery Wall: Black Abolitionists in the Atlantic Abolitionist Movement, 1830–1860
(Baton Rouge, LA, 1983); Paul Goodman,
Of One Blood: Abolitionism and the Origins of Racial Equality
(Berkeley, CA, 1998); James Oliver Horton and Lois E. Horton,
In Hope of Liberty: Culture, Community, and Protest Among Northern Free Blacks, 1700–1860
(New York, 1997); Julie Roy Jeffrey,
The Great Silent Army of Abolitionism: Ordinary Women in the Abolitionist Movement
(Chapel Hill, NC, 1998); Richard S. Newman,
The Transformation of American Abolitionism: Fighting Slavery in the Early Republic
(Chapel Hill, NC, 2002); James Brewer Stewart,
Abolitionist Politics and the Coming of the Civil War
(Amherst, MA, 2008); J. Brent Morris, “‘All The Wise and Truly Pious Have One and the Same End in View’: Oberlin, the West, and Abolitionist Schism,”
Civil War History
57 (2011): 234–267; Margaret Washington,
Sojourner Truth’s America
(Urbana, IL, 2009); Stanley Harrold,
Border War: Fighting Over Slavery Before the Civil War
(Chapel Hill, NC, 2010); Kantrowitz,
More Than Freedom.

46
. Brown,
Narrative of William Wells Brown
, 13, 51; cf. Thomas Smallwood,
A Narrative of Thomas Smallwood
(Toronto, 1851), 19; Isaac Williams,
Aunt Sally, Or, the Cross the Way of Freedom
(Cincinnati, 1858), 89; Charles Ball,
Slavery in the United States: A Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Charles Ball
. . . (New York, 1837), 36; Moses Roper,
A Narrative of the Adventures and Escape of Moses Roper
(Philadelphia, 1838), 62; J. W. Loguen,
The Rev. J. W. Loguen as a Slave and a Freeman
(Syracuse, NY, 1859), 14–15; Charles Wheeler,
Chains and Freedom, Or, the Life and Adventures of Peter Wheeler, a Colored Man
(New York, 1839), 36–45;
Running a Thousand Miles for Freedom, Or, The Escape of William and Ellen Craft from Slavery
(London, 1860), 3–7; Henry Brown,
Narrative of Henry Box Brown
(Boston, 1849), 15; Kate E. R. Pickard,
The Kidnapped and the Ransomed: Being the Personal Recollections of Peter Still and His Wife “Vina”
(Syracuse, NY, 1856), passim; Lunsford Lane,
The Narrative of Lunsford Lane
(Boston, 1842), 20. Cf. Elizabeth Clark, “‘The Sacred Rights of the Weak’: Pain, Sympathy and the Culture of Individual Rights in Antebellum America,”
JAH
82 (1995): 463–493; Karen Halttunen, “Humanitarianism and the Pornography of Pain in Anglo-American Culture,”
AHR
100, no. 2 (1995): 303–334.

47
.
Freedom’s Journal
, March 16, 1827.

48
. GSMD, 99–100.

49
. Nathan O. Hatch,
The Democratization of American Christianity
(New Haven, CT, 1989).

50
. Albert Raboteau,
Slave Religion: The “Invisible Institution” in the Antebellum South
(New York, 1978), 129–132, 223–225; Christine Heyrman,
Southern Cross: The Beginning of the Bible Belt
(New York, 1997), 217–225.

51
. NSV, 137; Charles F. Irons,
The Origins of Proslavery Christianity: White and Black Evangelicals in Colonial and Antebellum Virginia
(Chapel Hill, NC, 2008); Jeffrey Young,
Domesticating Slavery: The Master Class in Georgia and South Carolina, 1670–1837
(Chapel Hill, NC, 1999); David Barrow,
Involuntary Slavery Examined
(Lexington, KY, 1808), 22; Betsey Madison, ST, 185–186; Betty Crissman, ST, 468–469; Ball,
Slavery in the United States
, 164–165.

52
. On Cane Creek: John B. Boles,
The Great Revival, 1787–1805: The Origins of the Southern Evangelical Mind
(Lexington, KY, 1972); Ellen Eslinger,
Citizens of Zion: The Social Origins of Camp Meeting Revivalism
(Knoxville, TN, 1999); Paul Conkin,
Cane Ridge, America’s Pentecost
(Madison, WI, 1990).

53
. John F. Watson,
Methodist Error, Or Friendly Christian Advice to Those Methodists Who Indulge in Extravagant Religious Emotions and Bodily Exercises
(Trenton, NJ, 1819); Jane Alexander to Mary Springs, July 24, 1801, Springs Papers, SHC; R. C. Puryear to Isaac Jarratt, November 16, 1832, Jarratt-Puryear Papers, Duke.

54
. Jon Butler,
Awash in a Sea of Faith: Christianizing the American People
(Cambridge, MA, 1990).

55
. Adam Hodgson,
Remarks During a Journey Through North America in the Years 1819, 1820, 1821
(New York, 1823), 200; Randy J. Sparks,
On Jordan’s Stormy Banks: Evangelicalism in Mississippi, 1773–1876
(Athens, GA, 1994), 61–66; Ellen Eslinger, “The Beginnings of Afro-American Christianity,” in Craig Thompson Friend, ed.,
The Buzzel About Kentuck: Settling the Promised Land
(Lexington, KY, 1998), 206–207; Daniel Walker Howe,
What God Hath Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848
(New York, 2007).

56
. Sparks,
On Jordan’s Stormy Banks
, 66–71, 116–117, 125–139; David T. Bailey, “A Divided Prism: Two Sources of Black Testimony on Slavery,”
JSH
46 (1980): 392; Randolph Scully, “‘I Come Here Before You Did and I Shall Not Go Away’: Race, Gender, and Evangelical Community on the Eve of the Nat Turner Rebellion,”
JER
27, no. 4 (2007): 661–684; Janet Duitsman Cornelius,
Slave Missions and the Black Church in the Antebellum South
(Columbia, SC, 1999); Isaac Johnson,
Slavery Days in Old Kentucky
(Ogdensburg, NY, 1901), 25–26; Solomon Northup,
Twelve Years a Slave
(Auburn, NY, 1853), 94.

57
. June 26, 1821, Neill Brown Papers, Duke.

58
. GSMD, 36, 71, 98; cf. GSMD, pp. 41, 53–55, 81–83, 146.

59
. GSMD, 215. The screaming mothers and abandoned babies are frequent elements in Works Progress Administration accounts of the domestic slave trade as-told-to-the-interviewee: e.g., Dave Harper, AS, 11.2 (MO), 163; Alice Douglass, AS, 7.1 (OK), 73–74.

60
. GSMD, 99–100.

61
. William Webb,
History of William Webb
(Detroit, 1873), 5.

62
. Lula Chambers, AS, 11.2, (MO), 79–81; Robert Falls, AS, 16.6 (TN), 16; Henry Bibb to Albert G. Sibley, September 23, 1852, ST, 50–51; Hannah Davidson, AS, 16.4 (OH), 32.

63
. Ball,
Slavery in the United States
, 221.

64
. Brown,
Slave Life in Georgia
, 3.

65
. Scully, “‘I Come Here,’” 675; Ira Berlin,
Generations of Captivity: A History of African-American Slaves
(Cambridge, MA, 2003), 209.

66
. Nat Turner,
Confessions of Nat Turner
(Baltimore, 1831), 10–11.

67
. Scot P. French,
The Rebellious Slave: Nat Turner in American Memory
(Boston, 2004), 83; Patrick Breen, “Contested Communion: The Limits of White Solidarity in Nat Turner’s Virginia,”
JER
27, no. 4 (2007): 685–703; Anthony E. Kaye, “Neighborhoods and Nat Turner: The Making of a Slave Rebel and the Unmaking of a Slave Rebellion,”
JER
27, no. 4 (2007): 705–720; estimate from Patrick Breen, “Nat Turner’s Revolt: Rebellion and Response in Southampton County, Virginia” (PhD diss., University of Georgia, 2005).

68
.
New Orleans Bee
, September 15, 1831; Rachel O’Connor to Brother, October 13, 1831: Allie B. W. Webb, ed.,
Mistress of Evergreen Plantation: Rachel O’Connor’s Legacy of Letters, 1823–1845
(Albany, NY, 1983), 62–63.

69
.
New Orleans Bee
, November 19, 1831; Office of the Mayor, List of Slaves Arrived, 1831, NOPL; W. M. Drake, “The Mississippi Constitutional Convention of 1832,”
JSH
23 (1957); Stephen Duncan to Thomas Butler, September 4, 1831, Butler Papers, LLMVC.