The Encyclopedia of Essential Oils (3 page)

The term ‘aromatherapy’ was first coined in 1928 by Gattefossé, a French chemist working in his family’s perfumier business. He became fascinated with the therapeutic possibilities of the oils after discovering by accident that lavender was able to rapidly heal a severe burn on his hand and help prevent scarring. He also found that many of the essential oils were more effective in their totality than their synthetic substitutes or their isolated active ingredients. As early as 1904 Cuthbert Hall had shown that the antiseptic power of eucalyptus oil in its natural form was stronger than its isolated main active constituent, ‘eucalyptol’ or ‘cineol’.

Another French doctor and scientist, Dr Jean Valnet, used essential oils as part of his programme by which he was able to successfully treat specific medical and psychiatric disorders, the results of which were published in 1964 as
Aromatherapie.

The work of Valnet was studied by Madame Marguerite Maury who applied his research to her beauty therapy, in which she aimed to revitalize her clients by creating a ‘strictly personal aromatic complex which she adapted to the subject’s temperament and particular health problems. Hence, going far beyond any simple aesthetic objective, perfumed essences when correctly selected, represent many medicinal agents.’
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In some respects, the word ‘aromatherapy’ can be misleading because it suggests that it is a form of healing which works exclusively through our sense of smell, and on the emotions. This is not the case for, apart from its scent, each essential oil has an individual combination of constituents which interacts with the body’s chemistry in a direct manner, which then in turn affects certain organs or systems as a whole. For example, when the oils are used externally in the form of a massage treatment, they are easily absorbed via the skin and transported throughout the body. This can be demonstrated by rubbing a clove of garlic on the soles of the feet; the volatile oil content will be taken into the blood and the odour will appear on the breath a little while later. It is interesting to note that different essential oils are absorbed through the skin at varying rates, for example:

Turpentine: 20 mins.

Eucalyptus and thyme: 20–40 mins.

Anise, bergamot and lemon: 40–60 mins.

Citronella, pine, lavender and geranium: 60–80 mins.

Coriander, rue and peppermint: 100–120 mins.

It is therefore important to recognize that essential oils have three distinct modes of action with regard to how they inter-relate with the human body: pharmacological, physiological and psychological. The pharmacological effect is concerned with the chemical changes which take place when an essential oil enters the bloodstream and reacts with the hormones and enzymes etc; the physiological mode is concerned with the way in which an essential oil affects the systems of the body, whether they are sedated or stimulated, etc; the psychological effect takes place when an essence is inhaled, and an individual responds to its odour. With relation to the first two points, aromatherapy has a great deal in common with the tradition of medical herbalism or phytotherapy – in other words, it is not simply the
aroma which is important but also the chemical interaction between the oils and the body, and the physical changes which are brought about.

The practice of aromatherapy could be seen as part of the larger field of herbal medicine, since the essential oil is only one of many ways in which a plant can be prepared as a remedy. Since all essential oils are derived directly from plants, it can be valuable to see them within a botanical context rather than as isolated products. In some ways the use of aromatic oils for therapeutic purposes benefits from being placed within a herbal context not only because it gives us further insight into their characteristics, but because the two forms of therapy are not synonymous, but complementary.

Although most plants which yield essential oils are also used in medical herbalism, it is important to distinguish the therapeutic qualities of a particular oil from those of the herb taken as a whole or prepared in another manner. German chamomile, for example, is used extensively in the form of a herbal preparation such as an infusion, tincture or decoction, apart from being utilized for its volatile oil. Chamazulene, a major constituent of the oil, helps to account for the herb’s age-old reputation as a general relaxant and soothing skin care remedy, due to its pain-relieving, antispasmodic, wound-healing and anti-inflammatory activities. For the treatment of nervous conditions, insomnia and dermal irritation or disease, the essential oil is both useful and effective. But although the aromatic principle of the plant plays a central role in its overall character, the herb also contains a bitter component (anthemic acid), tannins (tannic acid), mucilage and a glycoside among other things. The overall effect of the herb is the result of the action of all its pharmacologically active constituents which in the case of chamomile or
Matricaria
includes the astringency of the tannins and the stimulation of the bitters. The volatile oil is, of course, less concentrated in
the form of an infusion, tincture or decoction, the potency of the oil is reduced (and inherently the safety margin increased), thus making the herbal preparation more suited to internal use.

Similarly with peppermint. Whilst the oil is eminently suited to the treatment of respiratory conditions as an inhalant, due in particular to its antispasmodic and antiseptic actions, for the longer term treatment of digestive disorders it is better to use extracts from the whole herb, where the action of the volatile oil is supported by the presence of bitters and tannins. In addition, in herbal medicine, the effect of one herb is usually supported and backed up by combining it with others.

Neither is it correct to assume that the essential oil is always the most active or therapeutically useful part of a plant. For example, although meadowsweet contains an essential oil outstanding in its antiseptic strength (according to Cavel,
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3.3cc of meadowsweet essence renders infertile 1000cc of microbic cultures in sewage, compared to 5.6cc of phenol per 1000cc), it also possesses several other valuable components, notably salicylic glycosides which are characterized by their excellent pain-relieving and anti-inflammatory qualities. Indeed, the familiar drug aspirin, being derived from salicylic acid, is named after this herb, its old country name being ‘spiraea’.

The kernels of the (bitter and sweet) almond tree are used to produce a fixed oil commonly known as sweet almond oil, which has a great many cosmetic uses. The kernels from the bitter almond tree, which are used to produce the essential oil which gives marzipan its characteristic taste, also contain cyanide, the well-known poison, in its unrefined form. This shows that there can be a great difference in the properties of a plant, even the same part of a plant, depending upon how it has been prepared.

As a general rule which is in line with the present-day aromatherapy ‘code of practice’, it is best to use essential oils as external remedies only. This is mainly due to the high concentration of the oils and the potential irritation or damage that they can cause to the mucous membranes and delicate stomach lining in undiluted form. There even seems to be some kind of natural order in this scheme, in that volatile oils mix readily with oils and ointments suited to external application, which are absorbed readily through the skin and vaporize easily for inhalation. When inhaled, they can affect an individual’s mood or feelings, and at the same time cause physiological changes in the body. Indeed, in a Japanese experiment carried out in 1963, it was found that the effects of essential oils on the digestive system were likely to be stronger if they were inhaled than if they were ingested.

Herbs, on the other hand, yield up many of their qualities to water and alcohol which are appropriate for internal use but, lacking the concentrated aromatic element, they do not have the same subtle effects on the mind and emotions.

These are only superficial guidelines, for there are always exceptions to the rule. Plantain, for example, is an excellent wound-healing herb valuable for external use, although it does not contain any essential oil. Nor can we ignore the fact that a great many aromatic oils are used for flavouring our food and beverages and are consumed daily in minute amounts. Peppermint oil, for example, is used in a wide variety of alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages, confectionery and prepared savoury foods, although the highest average use does not exceed 0.104 per cent. The mint oils, which include spearmint and cornmint, are also used extensively by the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries in products such as toothpaste, cough and cold
remedies, and as fragrance components in soaps, creams, lotions, as well as colognes and perfumes. In addition, cornmint is frequently used as the starting material for the production of ‘menthol’ for use in the drug industry.

It can be seen that the use of essential oils covers a wide and varied spectrum. On the one hand they share the holistic qualities of natural plant remedies, although it is true that some herbalists view essential oils in much the same light as they regard synthetic drugs, being a ‘part’ of the whole, rather than the entire herb. On the other hand, they play an active role in the modern pharmaceutical industry, either in their entirety or in the form of isolated constituents such as ‘phenol’ or ‘menthol’.

It is not the aim of this book to glorify natural remedies (some of which are in fact highly toxic) at the expense of scientific progress, nor to uphold the principles of our present-day drug-orientated culture, but simply to provide information about the oils themselves in their multifaceted nature.

Safety Data:
Always check with specific SAFETY DATA before using a new oil, especially with regard to toxicity levels, phototoxicity, dermal irritation and sensitization.

Contra-indications:
Take note of any contra-indications when using particular oils. For example, fennel, hyssop and sage should be avoided by epileptics; clary sage should not be used while drinking alcohol; hops should not be used by anyone suffering from depression.

High Blood Pressure:
Avoid the following oils in cases of high blood pressure: hyssop, rosemary, sage (all types) and thyme.

Homoeopathy:
Homoeopathic treatment is not compatible with the following oils: black pepper, camphor, eucalyptus and the mint oils.

Pregnancy:
During pregnancy use essential oils in half the usual stated amount. Take note of those oils which are contra-indicated in pregnancy.

Babies and Children:
Use with care, in accordance with age.

Babies (0–12 months) – use 1 drop of lavender, rose, chamomile or mandarin diluted in 1 tsp base oil for massage or bathing.

Infants (1–5 years) – use 2–3 drops of ‘safe’ essential oils (non-toxic and non irritant to the skin), diluted in 1 tsp base oil for massage or bathing.

Children (6–12 years) – use as for adults but in half the stated amount.

Teenagers (over 12 years) – use as directed for adults.

The therapeutic potential of essential oils, like other plant-derived remedies, has yet to be fully realized. Although numerous medical herbs have been utilized since antiquity, many of which have been exploited to provide the biologically active compounds which form the basis for most of our modern drugs (such as quinine and cocaine), there is still a great deal to be learnt about their precise pharmacology. This is particularly true of aromatic oils, which by their very nature have such a concentrated yet multifaceted make-up. In addition, ‘only a small proportion of the world flora has been examined for pharmacologically active compounds, but with the ever-increasing danger of plants becoming extinct, there is a real risk that many important plant sources may be lost’.
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Modern research has largely confirmed the traditionally held beliefs regarding the therapeutic uses of particular plants, although with time the terminology has changed. A herb such as basil, at one time described as a ‘protection against evil’, or ‘good for the heart’ whose scent ‘taketh away sorrowfulness’, may in modern usage be described as an excellent prophylactic, nerve tonic and antidepressant. Like herbal remedies, an essential oil can cover a wide field of activities; indeed the same herb or oil (such as lemon balm) can stimulate certain systems of the body while sedating or relaxing others. In order to gain a clearer understanding of the way essential oils work, and some of their particular areas of activity, it may be helpful to take an overall view of the systems of the human body.

Skin problems are often the surface manifestation of a deeper condition, such as a build-up of toxins in the blood, hormonal imbalance or nervous and emotional difficulties. In this area the versatility of essential oils is particularly valuable because they are able to combat such complaints on a variety of levels. Since essential oils are soluble in oil and alcohol and impart their scent to water, they provide the ideal ingredient for cosmetics and general skin care as well as for the treatment of specific diseases.

Within this context the following activities are of particular benefit:

Antiseptics
for cuts, insect bites, spots, etc; for example, thyme, sage, eucalyptus, tea tree, clove, lavender and lemon.

Anti-inflammatory oils
for eczema, infected wounds, bumps, bruises, etc; for example, German and Roman chamomile, lavender and yarrow.

Fungicidal oils
for athletes foot, candida, ringworm, etc; for example, lavender, tea tree, myrrh, patchouli and sweet marjoram.

Granulation stimulating or cicatrising(healing) agents
for burns, cuts, scars, stretch marks, etc; for example, lavender, chamomile, rose, neroli, frankincense and geranium.

Deodorants
for excessive perspiration, cleaning wounds, etc; for example, bergamot, lavender, thyme, juniper, cypress, Spanish sage, lemongrass.

Insect repellents and parasiticides
for lice, fleas, scabies, ticks, mosquitos, ants, moths, etc; for example, spike lavender, garlic, geranium, citronella, eucalyptus, clove, camphor, Atlas cedarwood.

Essential oils are easily absorbed via the skin and mucosa into the bloodstream, affecting the nature of the circulation as a whole. Oils with a rubefacient or warming effect not only cause a better local blood circulation, but also influence the inner organs. They bring a warmth and glow to the surface of the skin and can provide considerable pain relief through their analgesic or numbing effect. Such oils can relieve local inflammation by setting free mediators in the body which in turn cause the blood vessels to expand, so the blood is able to move more quickly and the swelling is reduced. Some oils like hyssop tend to have a balancing or regulating effect on the circulatory system as a whole, reducing the blood pressure if it is too high or stimulating the system if it is sluggish.

Hypotensives
for high blood pressure, palpitations, stress, etc; for example, sweet marjoram, ylang ylang, lavender, lemon.

Hypertensives
for poor circulation, chilblains, listlessness, etc; for example, rosemary, spike lavender, eucalyptus, peppermint, thyme.

Rubefacients
for rheumatism of the joints, muscular stiffness, sciatica, lumbago, etc; for example, black pepper, juniper, rosemary, camphor, sweet marjoram.

Depurative or antitoxic agents
for arthritis, gout, congestion, skin eruptions, etc; for example, juniper, lemon, fennel, lovage.

Lymphatic stimulants
for cellulitis, obesity, water retention, etc; for example, grapefruit, lime, fennel, lemon, mandarin, white birch.

Circulatory tonics and astringents
for swellings, inflammations, varicose veins, etc; for example, cypress, yarrow, lemon.

Nose, throat and lung infections are conditions which respond very well to treatment with essential oils. Inhalation is a very effective way of utilizing their properties, for ‘although after arriving in the bronchi the main part will be exhaled directly by the lungs, they cause an increased bronchial secretion (a protective reaction) which is beneficial for many respiratory ailments’.
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By inhalation they are absorbed into the blood circulation even faster than by oral application. In addition, most essential oils which are absorbed from the stomach are then excreted via the lungs, only a small part in the urine.

Expectorants
for catarrh, sinusitis, coughs, bronchitis, etc; for example, eucalyptus, pine, thyme, myrrh, sandalwood, fennel.

Antispasmodics
for colic, asthma, dry cough, whooping cough, etc; for example, hyssop, cypress, Atlas cedarwood, bergamot, chamomile, cajeput.

Balsamic agents
for colds, chills, congestion, etc; for example, benzoin, frankincense, Tolu balsam, Peru balsam, myrrh.

Antiseptics
for ’flu, colds, sore throat, tonsillitis, gingivitis, etc; for example, thyme, sage, eucalyptus, hyssop, pine, cajeput, tea tree, borneol.

Although it is not recommended that essential oils be taken orally, they can by external application effect certain changes in the digestive processes. However, whereas herbal medicine has many remedies at its disposal for a wide variety of stomach, gall bladder and liver complaints, such as dandelion, marshmallow, chamomile and meadowsweet, much of their effectiveness is based on a combination of aromatic components, together with bitters, tannins and mucilage, which are absent in the volatile oil alone. The external application of essential oils in problems of the digestive system though effective, is consequently somewhat limited compared to the internal use of herbal remedies.

Antispasmodics
for spasm, pain, indigestion, etc; for example, chamomile, caraway, fennel, orange, peppermint, lemon balm, aniseed, cinnamon.
Carminatives and stomachics
for flatulent dyspepsia, aerophagia, nausea, etc; for example, angelica, basil, fennel, chamomile, peppermint, mandarin.

Cholagogues
for increasing the flow of bile and stimulating the gall bladder; for example, caraway, lavender, peppermint and borneol.
Hepatics
for liver congestion, jaundice, etc; for example, lemon, lime, rosemary, peppermint.

Aperitifs
for loss of appetite, anorexia, etc; for example, aniseed, angelica, orange, ginger, garlic.

Like the digestive system, the reproductive organs can be affected by absorption via the skin into the bloodstream, as well as through hormonal changes. Some essential oils such as rose and jasmine have an affinity for the reproductive system having a general strengthening effect as well as helping to combat specific complaints like menstrual problems, genital infections and sexual difficulties. Other oils contain plant hormones which mimic the corresponding human hormones; oils such as hops, sage and fennel have been found to contain a form of oestrogen that influences the menstrual cycle, lactation and secondary sexual characteristics. Oestrogen also helps maintain a healthy circulation, good muscle and skin tone and strong bones in both men and women.

Other essential oils are known to influence the levels of hormone secretion of other glands, including the thyroid gland (which governs growth and metabolism), the adrenal medulla (which deals with stress reactions) and the adrenal cortex (which governs several processes including the production of oestrogen and androgen, the male sex hormone).

Antispasmodics
for menstrual cramp (dysmenorrhoea), labour pains, etc; for example, sweet marjoram, chamomile, clary sage, jasmine, lavender.

Emmenagogues
for scanty periods, lack of periods (amenorrhoea), etc; for example, chamomile, fennel, hyssop, juniper, sweet marjoram, peppermint.

Uterine tonics and regulators
for pregnancy, excess menstruation (menorrhagia), PMT, etc; for example, clary sage, jasmine, rose, myrrh, frankincense, lemon balm.

Antiseptic and bactericidal agents
for leucorrhoea, vaginal pruritis, thrush, etc; for example, bergamot, chamomile, myrrh, rose, tea tree.
Galactagogues
for increasing milk flow; for example, fennel, jasmine, anise, lemongrass (sage, mint and parsley reduce it).

Aphrodisiacs
for impotence and frigidity, etc; for example, black pepper, cardomon, clary sage, neroli, jasmine, rose, sandalwood, patchouli, ylang ylang.

Anaphrodisiacs
for reducing sexual desire; for example, sweet marjoram, camphor.

Adrenal stimulants
for anxiety, stress-related conditions, etc; for example, basil, geranium, rosemary, borneol, sage, pine, savory.

With regard to the kidneys, bladder and urinary system in general, it is difficult to bring about results simply by using essential oils. According to recent research, ‘the diuretic effects of essential oils are virtually non-existent’.
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In addition, the traditional diuretic agents such as juniper, lovage and parsley seed are considered unsuitable as essential oils for internal use due to toxicity levels and possible kidney damage; herb teas of
fennel, dandelion or chamomile provide a milder alternative. Bathing and using a douche can help control urinary infections, especially when they are associated with nervous or stress-related symptoms.

Urinary antiseptics
for cystitis, urethritis, etc; for example, bergamot, chamomile, tea tree, sandalwood.

Virtually all essential oils have bactericidal properties and by promoting the production of white blood cells, they can help prevent and treat infectious illness. It is these properties that gave aromatic herbs and oils such high repute with regard to infections such as malaria and typhoid in the tropics and epidemics of plague in the Middle Ages. ‘People who use essential oils all the time … mostly have a high level of resistance to illness, catching fewer colds, etc, than average and recovering quickly if they do.’
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Bactericidal and antiviral agents (prophylactics)
for protection against colds, ’flu, etc; for example, tea tree, cajeput, niaouli, basil, lavender, eucalyptus, bergamot, camphor, clove, rosemary.

Febrifuge agents
for reducing fever and temperature, etc; for example, angelica, basil, peppermint, thyme, sage, lemon, eucalyptus, tea tree.
Sudorifics and diaphoretics
for promoting sweating, eliminating toxins, etc; for example, rosemary, thyme, hyssop, chamomile.

Recent research shows that the properties of many oils correspond to the traditionally held views: chamomile, bergamot, sandalwood, lavender and sweet marjoram were found to have a sedative effect on the central nervous system; jasmine, peppermint, basil, clove and ylang ylang were found to have a stimulating effect. Neroli was found to be stimulating and lemon to be sedating, contrary to popular belief. Some oils are known to be ‘adaptogens’, that is, they have a balancing or normalizing effect on the systems of the body: geranium and rosewood were either sedative or stimulating according to each situation and individual.

Words like ‘relaxing’ and ‘uplifting’ often have more to do with odour description and emotional response rather than physiological effect – although the two are related. Consequently, oils such as bergamot, lemon balm or lemon can be sedating to the nervous system, but reviving to the ‘spirit’. Conversely, oils such as jasmine, ylang ylang and neroli can be nerve stimulants yet soothing and relaxing on a more subtle emotional level.

Sedatives
for nervous tension, stress, insomnia, etc; for example, chamomile, bergamot, sandalwood, lavender, sweet marjoram, lemon balm, hops, valerian, lemon.

Stimulants
for convalescence, lack of strength, nervous fatigue, etc; for example, basil, jasmine, peppermint, ylang ylang, neroli, angelica, rosemary.

Nerve tonics (nervines)
for strengthening the nervous system as a whole; for example, chamomile, clary sage, juniper, lavender, marjoram, rosemary.

This area is perhaps the most discussed and least understood area of activity regarding essential oils. There is no doubt that throughout history aromatic oils have been used for their power to influence the emotions and states of mind: this is the basis for their employment as incense for religious and ritualistic purposes. It is already known that two olfactory nerve tracts run right into the limbic system (the part of the brain concerned with memory and emotion), which means that scents can evoke an immediate and powerful response which defies rational analysis.