The Encyclopedia of Essential Oils (10 page)

DISTRIBUTION Native to Chile; naturalized in the Mediterranean region. Some essential oil is produced in Nepal and Vietnam.

OTHER SPECIES The Australian tree
Monimia rotundifolia
contains a similar oil, which has been used as a substitute. The oil of chenopodium or wormseed is also chemically related.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The bark is used for tanning, the wood utilized in charcoal making and the fruit eaten by locals. In South America it has long been recognized as a valuable cure for gonorrhoea. In Western herbalism, the dried leaves are used for genito-urinary inflammation, gallstones, liver or gall bladder pain, cystitis and rheumatism. The dried leaves are current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for cholelithiasis with pain.

ACTIONS Antiseptic, cholagogue, diaphoretic, diuretic, hepatic, sedative, tonic, urinary demulcent.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation of the leaves.

CHARACTERISTICS A yellow liquid with a powerful spicy-camphoraceous, disagreeable odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Cymene, ascaridole, cineol, linalol.

SAFETY DATA Extremely toxic. ‘The oil has powerful therapeutic effects, and it can be considered harmful to the human organism even when used in very small doses … should not be used in therapy, either internally or externally.’
¹³

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE None.

OTHER USES Used in pharmaceuticals in minute amounts for its therapeutic properties.

Dryobalanops aromatica

FAMILY Dipterocarpaceae

SYNONYMS D.
camphora
, Borneo camphor, East Indian camphor, Baros camphor, Sumatra camphor, Malayan camphor.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION The camphora tree grows to a great height, a majestic tree often
over 25 metres high, with a thick trunk up to 2 metres in diameter. Borneol is a natural exudation found beneath the bark in crevices and fissures of some mature trees (about 1 per cent); young trees produce only a clear yellow liquid known as ‘liquid camphor’.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Borneo and Sumatra.

OTHER SPECIES To be distinguished from the Japanese or Formosa type of camphor, more commonly used in Europe, which is relatively toxic. See also Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Borneol has long been regarded as a panacea by many Eastern civilizations, especially in ancient Persia, India and China. It was used as a powerful remedy against plague and other infectious diseases, stomach and bowel complaints. In China it was also used for embalming purposes. ‘It is mentioned by Marco Polo in the thirteenth century and Camoens in 1571 who called it the “balsam of disease”.’
¹⁴
It is valued for ceremonial purposes in the east generally, and in China particularly for funeral rites. Its odour repels insects and ants, and it is therefore highly regarded as timber for the construction of buildings.

ACTIONS Mildly analgesic, antidepressant, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiviral, carminative, rubefacient, stimulant of the adrenal cortex, tonic (cardiac and general).

EXTRACTION The borneol is collected from the tree trunk in its crude crystalline form (the natives test each tree first by making incisions in the trunk to detect its presence). The so-called ‘oil of borneol’ is extracted by steam distillation of the wood.

CHARACTERISTICS Watery white to viscous black oil depending upon the amount of camphor which it contains, with a distinctive, sassafras-like, camphoraceous odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS The crude is made up of mainly d-borneol which is an alcohol, not a ketone (like Japanese camphor). The oil contains approx. 35 per cent terpenes: pinene, camphene, dipentene; 10 per cent alcohols: d-borneol, terpineol; 20 per cent sesquiterpenes, and 35 per cent resin.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-sensitizing, dermal irritant in concentration.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE:
Cuts, bruises, insect repellent,
CIRCULATION, MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Debility, poor circulation, rheumatism, sprains.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM:
Bronchitis, coughs.

IMMUNE SYSTEM:
Colds, fever, ’flu and other infectious diseases.

NERVOUS SYSTEM:
Nervous exhaustion, stress-related conditions, neuralgia.

OTHER USES It is used to scent soap in the East but is still relatively unknown in the West in pharmaceutical and perfumery work. In China and Japan it is used for making varnish and ink; also as a dilutant for artists’ colours. Mainly used for ritual purposes in the East.

Boronia megastigma

FAMILY Rutaceae

SYNONYM Brown boronia.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A bushy evergreen shrub, up to 2 metres high, which bears an abundance of fragrant, nodding flowers with an unusual colouring – the petals are brown on the outside, yellow on the inside. Often grown as an ornamental shrub in gardens.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Western Australia; grows wild all over west and south west Australia.

OTHER SPECIES There are over fifteen species of boronia found in Western Australia;
B. megastigma
is one of the most common and
the only one used for its perfume; other types smell of sarsaparilla, lemons or roses! Boronia is botanically related to the citrus tree.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION ‘A botanist in the Victorian era suggested this species would be suitable for graveyard planting because of its dark flowers!’
¹⁵

ACTIONS Aromatic.

EXTRACTION A concrete and absolute by the enfleurage method or petroleum-ether extraction, from the flowers. An essential oil is also produced in small quantities by steam distillation.

CHARACTERISTICS The concrete is a dark green butterlike mass with a beautiful warm, woody-sweet fragrance; the absolute is a green viscous liquid with a fresh, fruity-spicy scent and a rich, tenacious, floral undertone. It blends well with clary sage, sandalwood, bergamot, violet, helichrysum, costus, mimosa and other florals.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Notably ionone; also eugenol, triacontane, phenols, ethyl alcohol and ethyl formate, among others.

SAFETY DATA Prohibitively expensive and therefore often adulterated.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE Perfume.

OTHER USES The absolute is used in high-class perfumery work, especially florals. Used in specialized flavour work, especially rich fruit products.

Spartium junceum

FAMILY Fabaceae (Leguminosae).

SYNONYMS
Genista juncea
, genista, weavers broom, broom (absolute), genet (absolute).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A decorative plant, often cultivated as an ornamental shrub, up to 3 metres high with upright woody branches and tough flexible stems. It has bright green leaves and large, yellow, pea-like fragrant flowers, also bearing its seeds in pods or legumes.

DISTRIBUTION Native to southern Europe, especially southern Spain and southern France; mainly cultivated in Spain, France, Italy and USA (as a garden shrub). The absolute is produced in Southern France.

OTHER SPECIES Closely related to dyer’s greenweed
(Genista tinctoria)
and the common or green broom
(Sarothamnus scoparius
or
Cytisus scoparius).
There are also several other related species of broom, which are rich in their folk tradition.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The twigs and bark have been used since ancient times to produce a strong fibre which can be made into cord or a coarse cloth. The branches were also used for thatching, basketwork, fencing and, of course, for making brooms. Spanish broom has similar therapeutic properties to the common broom, which is still current in the British Herbal Pharmocopoeia for cardiac dropsy, myocardial weakness, tachycardia and profuse menstruation. However, the Spanish broom is said to be five to six times more active than the common broom, and even that must be used with caution by
professional herbalists due to the strength of the active ingredients: ‘A number of cases of poisoning have occurred from the substitution of the dried flowers of
Spartium
for those of true Broom.’
¹⁶

ACTIONS Antihaemorrhagic, cardioactive, diuretic, cathartic, emmenagogue, narcotic, vasoconstrictor.

EXTRACTION An absolute is obtained by solvent extraction from the dried flowers.

CHARACTERISTICS A dark brown, viscous liquid with an intensely sweet, floral, hay-like scent with a herbaceous undertone. It blends well with rose, tuberose, cassie, mimosa, violet, vetiver, and herbaceous-type fragrances.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS The absolute contains capryllic acid, phenols, aliphatics, terpenes, esters, scoparin and sparteine, as well as wax, etc.

SAFETY DATA Sparteine, which is contained in the flowers as the main active constituent, is toxic. In large doses, it causes vomiting, renal irritation, weakens the heart, depresses the nerve cells and lowers the blood pressure, and in extreme cases causes death.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE None.

OTHER USES Used in soaps, cosmetics and high-class perfumery; also as a flavour ingredient in sweet rich ‘preserves’, alcoholic and soft drinks.

Agothosma betulina

FAMILY Rutaceae

SYNOYNMS
Barosma betulina
, short buchu, mountain buchu, bookoo, buku, bucco.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A small shrub with simple wrinkled leaves about 1–2 cms long; other much smaller leaves are also present which are bright green with finely serrated margins. It has delicate stems bearing five-petalled white flowers. The whole plant has a strong, aromatic, blackcurrant-like odour.

DISTRIBUTION Native to the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa, it now grows wild all over South Africa. Dried leaves are exported to Holland, England and America.

OTHER SPECIES There are more than twelve so-called
Barosma
species in South Africa – the ‘true’ buchus are
B. crenulata
(contains high amounts of pulegone, a toxic constituent),
B. serratifolia
and
B. betulina.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The leaves are used locally for antiseptic purposes and to ward off insects. In western herbalism, the leaves are used for infections of the genito-urinary system, such as cystitis, urethritis and prostatitis. Current in British Herbal Pharmocopoeia 1983.

ACTIONS Antiseptic (especially urinary), diuretic, insecticide.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried leaves.

CHARACTERISTICS Dark yellowy-brown oil with a penetrating minty-camphoraceous odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Diosphenol (25–40 per cent), limonene and menthone, among others.

SAFETY DATA Should not be used during pregnancy. The toxicity of buchu is unknown but since
B. betulina
yields oils high in diophenols and
B. crenulata
yields oils high in pulegone, they should both be regarded as questionable at present.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE None.

OTHER USES A tincture, extract and oleoresin are produced for pharmaceutical use. Limited use in blackcurrant flavour and fragrance work, for example colognes and chyprè bases.

Myrocarpus fastigiatus

FAMILY Fabaceae (Leguminosae)

SYNONYMS Cabureicica, ‘Baume de Perou brun’.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A graceful, tall tropical tree, 12–15 metres high, with a very hard wood, extremely resistant to moisture and mould growth. It yields a balsam when the trunk is damaged, like many other South American trees.

DISTRIBUTION Found in Brazil, Paraguay, Chile and north Argentina.

OTHER SPECIES Many varieties of
Myrocarpus
yield cabreuva oil, such as
M. frondosus.
It is also botanically related to the trees which yield copaiba, Peru and Tolu balsam.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The wood is highly appreciated for carving and furniture making. It is used by the natives to heal wounds, ulcers and obviate scars. It was once listed in old European pharmocopoeias for its antiseptic qualities.

ACTIONS Antiseptic, balsamic, cicatrisant.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from wood chippings (waste from the timber mills).

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellow, viscous liquid with a sweet, woody-floral scent, very delicate but having great tenacity. It blends well with rose, cassie, mimosa, cedarwood, rich woody and oriental bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly nerolidol (80 per cent approx.), farnesol, bisabolol, among others.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Cuts, scars, wounds.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Chills, coughs.

IMMUNE SYSTEM
: Colds.

OTHER USES Fragrance component and fixative in soaps and high-class perfumes, especially floral, woody or oriental types. Previously used for the isolation of nerolidol, now produced synthetically.

Juniperus oxycedrus

FAMILY Cupressaceae

SYNONYMS Juniper tar, prickly cedar, medlar tree, prickly juniper.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A large evergreen shrub up to 4 metres high, with long dark needles and brownish-black berries about the size of hazelnuts.

DISTRIBUTION Native to southern France; now common throughout Europe and North Africa. The tar is produced mainly in Spain and Yugoslavia.

OTHER SPECIES There are many varieties of juniper which are used commercially apart from the prickly juniper:
J. communis
produces juniper oil, J.
virginiana
produces Virginian cedarwood oil, and in Yugoslavia an oil is produced from the fruits and twigs of J.
smreka.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Used in the treatment of cutaneous diseases, such as chronic eczema, parasites, scalp disease, hair loss, etc. especially in France and other continental countries. It is also used as an antiseptic wound dressing and for toothache.

ACTIONS Analgesic, antimicrobial, antipruritic, antiseptic, disinfectant, parasiticide, vermifuge.

EXTRACTION The crude oil or tar is obtained by destructive distillation from the branches and heartwood (usually in the form of shavings or chips). A rectified oil is produced from the crude by steam or vacuum distillation. In addition, an oil is occasionally produced from the berries by steam distillation.

CHARACTERISTICS The rectified oil is an orange-brown, oily liquid with a woody, smoky, leatherlike odour. It blends well with thyme, origanum, clove, cassia, tea tree, pine and medicinal-type bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Cadinene, cadinol, p-cresol, guaiacol, among others.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization problems. Use with care, especially when treating inflammatory or allergic skin conditions. Turpentine (terebinth) oil makes a useful alternative, with less possibility of an allergic reaction.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Cuts, dandruff, dermatitis, eczema, spots, etc.

OTHER USES Extensively used in pharmaceutical work as a solvent for chemical drugs, in dermatological creams and ointments, as well as in veterinary medicine. Rectified cade is used in fragrance work, in soaps, lotions, creams and perfumes (especially leather and spice).

Melaleuca cajeputi

FAMILY Myrtaceae

SYNONYMS
M. minor
, cajuput, white tea tree, white wood, swamp tea tree, punk tree, paperbark tree.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A tall evergreen tree up to 30 metres high, with thick pointed leaves and white flowers. The flexible trunk has a whitish spongy bark which flakes off easily. In Malaysia it is called ‘caju-puti’, meaning ‘white wood’, due to the colour of the timber.

DISTRIBUTION It grows wild in Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Vietnam, Java, Australia and south eastern Asia.

OTHER SPECIES Several other varieties of
Melaleuca
are used to produce cajeput oil, such as
M. quinquenervia
– see Botanical Classification section. Closely related to other members of the
Melaleuca
group, notably eucalyptus, clove, niaouli and tea tree.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Held in high regard in the East, it is used locally for colds, headaches, throat infections, toothache, sore and aching muscles, fever (cholera), rheumatism and various skin diseases. Only the oil is used in the Western herbal tradition, known for producing a sensation of warmth and quickening the pulse. It is used for chronic laryngitis and bronchitis, cystitis, rheumatism and to expel roundworm.

ACTIONS Mildly analgesic, antimicrobial, antineuralgic, antispasmodic, antiseptic (pulmonary, urinary, intestinal), anthelmintic, diaphoretic, carminative, expectorant, febrifuge, insecticide, sudorific, tonic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh leaves and twigs.

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellowy-green, mobile liquid (the green tinge derives from traces of copper found in the tree), with a penetrating, camphoraceous-medicinal odour. Compared with eucalyptus oil, it has a slightly milder fruity body note.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Cineol (14–65 per cent depending on source), terpineol, terpinyl acetate, pinene, nerolidol and other traces.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-sensitizing, may irritate the skin in high concentration.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE:
Insect bites, oily skin, spots.

CIRCULATION, MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Arthritis, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, sinusitis, sore throat.

GENITOURINARY SYSTEM:
Cystitis, urethritis, urinary infection.

IMMUNE SYSTEM
: Colds, ’flu, viral infections.

OTHER USES Used in dentistry and pharmaceutical work as an antiseptic; in expectorant and tonic formulations, throat lozenges, gargles, etc. Used as a fragrance and freshening agent in soaps, cosmetics, detergents and perfumes. Occasionally employed as a flavour component in food products and soft drinks.

Calamintha officinalis

FAMILY Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS C.
clinopodium, Melissa calaminta
, calamint, common calamint, mill mountain, mountain balm, mountain mint, basil thyme, nepeta (oil), French marjoram (oil), wild basil (oil), catnip (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION An erect, bushy, perennial plant not more than one metre high, with square stems, soft oval serrated leaves greyish-green beneath, and rather inconspicuous pale purple flowers. The whole plant has a strong aromatic scent which is attractive to cats.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Europe and parts of Asia (Himalayas), naturalized throughout North America and South Africa. Cultivated for its oil in the Mediterranean region, Yugoslavia, Poland and in the USA.

OTHER SPECIES There are numerous similar species found throughout the world, such as the lesser calamintha
(C. nepeta)
which has a stronger odour and is often used interchangeably with common calamint. It is also closely related to catmint or catnip
(Nepeta cataria)
also known as calamint, with which it shares similar properties. Not to be confused with winter and summer savory
(Satureja montana
and
S. hortensis).

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION It has a long history of use as a herbal remedy mainly for nervous and digestive complaints, also menstrual pain, colds, chills and cramp. Catmint is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for flatulent colic in children and for the common cold.

ACTIONS Anaesthetic (local), antirheumatic, antispasmodic, astringent, carminative, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, febrifuge, nervine, sedative, tonic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the flowering tops.

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellow liquid with a herbaceous-woody, pungent odour, somewhat resembling pennyroyal.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Citral, nerol, citronellol, limonene and geraniol, among others. The active ingredient that attracts cats is metatabilacetone (3–5 percent). Constituents vary according to source.

SAFETY DATA Non-irritant, non-sensitizing; possible toxic effects in concentration. (The Chinese shrub
Actinidia polygama
also contains metatabilacetone, which is responsible for its hallucinogenic and narcotic effects.) Use in moderation. Avoid during pregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

CIRCULATION, MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Chills, cold in the joints, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
: Colic, flatulence, nervous dyspepsia.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
: Insomnia, nervous tension and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES Used as a wild cat lure in the USA. Occasionally used in perfumery work.

Acorus calamus var. angustatus

FAMILY Araceae

SYNONYMS
Calamus aromaticus
, sweet flag, sweet sedge, sweet root, sweet rush, sweet cane, sweet myrtle, myrtle grass, myrtle sedge, cinnamon sedge.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A reed like aquatic plant about 1 metre high, with sword-shaped leaves and small greenish-yellow flowers. It grows on the margins of lakes and streams with the long-branched rhizome immersed in the mud. The whole plant is aromatic.

DISTRIBUTION Native to India; the oil is mainly produced in India and Russia and to a lesser extent in Europe (except Spain), Siberia, China, Yugoslavia and Poland (Polish and Yugoslavian oils have a uniform lasting scent).

OTHER SPECIES Not to be confused with the yellow flag iris which it resembles in appearance; they are botanically unrelated. There are several other varieties of aromatic sedge, mostly in the east, for example
Calamus odoratus
used in India as a medicine and perfume.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The name derives from the Greek
calamos
meaning ‘reed’. The properties of the herb are mainly due to the aromatic oil, contained largely in the root. It used to be highly esteemed as an aromatic stimulant and tonic for fever (typhoid), nervous complaints, vertigo, headaches, dysentery, etc. It is still current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, for ‘acute and chronic dyspepsia, gastritis, intestinal colic, anorexia, gastric ulcer.’
¹⁷
In Turkey and especially in India (where it is valued as a traditional medicine), it is sold as a candied rhizome for dyspepsia, bronchitis and coughs.

ACTIONS Anticonvulsant, antiseptic, bactericidal, carminative, diaphoretic, expectorant, hypotensive, insecticide, spasmolytic, stimulant, stomachic, tonic, vermifuge.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the rhizomes (and sometimes the leaves).

CHARACTERISTICS A thick, pale yellow liquid with a strong, warm, woody-spicy fragrance; poor quality oils have a camphoraceous note. It blends well with cananga, cinnamon, labdanum, olibanum, patchouli, cedarwood, amyris, spice and oriental bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Beta-asarone (amounts vary depending on source: the Indian oil contains up to 80 per cent, the Russian oil a maximum of 6 per cent), also calamene, calamol, calamenene, eugenol and shyobunones.

SAFETY DATA Oral toxin. The oil of calamus is reported to have carcinogenic properties.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE None. ‘Should not be used in therapy, whether internally or externally.’
¹⁸

OTHER USES Extensively used in cosmetic and perfumery work, in woody/oriental/leather perfumes and to scent hair powders and tooth powders in the same way as orris. Calamus and its derivatives (oil, extracts, etc.) are banned from use in foods.

Cinnamomum camphora

FAMILY Lauraceae

SYNOYNMS
Laurus camphora
, true camphor, hon-sho, laurel camphor, gum camphor, Japanese camphor, Formosa camphor.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A tall, handsome, evergreen tree, up to 30 metres high, not unlike the linden. It has many branches bearing clusters of small white flowers followed by red berries. It produces a white crystalline substance, the crude camphor, from the wood of mature trees over fifty years old.