The Encyclopedia of Essential Oils (30 page)

Nardostachys jatamansi

FAMILY Valerianaceae

SYNONYMS Nard, ‘false’ Indian valerian root (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A tender aromatic herb with a pungent rhizome root.

DISTRIBUTION Native to the mountainous regions of northern India; also China and Japan (see Other Species). The oil is mainly distilled in Europe or the USA.

OTHER SPECIES Closely related to the common valerian
(Valeriana officinalis)
and the Indian valerian
(V. wallichii)
with which it shares many qualities. There are also several other similar species, notably the Chinese spikenard
(N. chinensis)
which is also used to produce an essential oil. Not to be confused with aspic or spike lavender
(Lavandula latifolia)
, nor with essential oils from the musk root
(Ferula sumbul)
which is collected from the same area. The roots of several other plants are also commonly sold as ‘Indian valerian root’.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Spikenard is one of the early aromatics used by the ancient Egyptians and is mentioned in the Song of Solomon in the Bible. It is also the herb which Mary used to anoint Jesus before the Last Supper; ‘Then took Mary a pound of ointment of spikenard, very costly, and anointed the feet of Jesus, and wiped his feet with her hair; and the house was filled with the odour of the ointment.’
⁹⁵

The oil was also used by the Roman perfumers, or
unguentarii
, in the preparation of
nardinum
, one of their most celebrated scented oils, and by the Mughal empress Nur Jehan in her rejuvenating cosmetic preparations.

It was also a herb known to Dioscorides as ‘warming and drying’, good for nausea, flatulent indigestion, menstrual problems, inflammations and conjunctivitis.

ACTIONS Anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, bactericidal, deodorant, fungicidal, laxative, sedative, tonic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried and crushed rhizome and roots.

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellow or amber-coloured liquid with a heavy, sweet-woody, spicy-animal odour, somewhat similar to valerian oil. It blends well with labdanum, lavender, oakmoss, patchouli, pine needle, vetiver and spice oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Bornyl acetate, isobornyl valerianate, borneol, patchouli alcohol, terpinyl valerianate, terpineol, eugenol and pinenes, among others.

SAFETY DATA Probably similar to valerian, i.e. non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Allergies, inflammation, mature skin (rejuvenating), rashes, etc.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
: Insomnia, nervous indigestion, migraine, stress and tension.

OTHER USES Little used these days, usually as a substitute for valerian oil.

Tsuga canadensis

FAMILY Pinaceae

SYNONYMS
Pinus canadensis, Abies canadensis
, spruce, eastern hemlock, common hemlock, hemlock (oil), spruce (oil), fir needle (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A large evergreen tree up to 50 metres tall, with slender horizontal branches, finely toothed leaves and smallish brown cones, which yields a natural exudation from its bark.

DISTRIBUTION Native to the west coast of the USA. The oil is produced in Vermont, New York, New Hampshire, Virginia and Wisconsin.

OTHER SPECIES Numerous cultivars of this species exist; often the oil is produced from a mixture of different types. Similar oils, also called simply ‘spruce oil’ are produced from the black spruce
(Picea nigra
or
mariana)
, the Norway spruce
(P. abies)
and the white or Canadian spruce
(P. glauca).
The essential oil from the western hemlock
(Tsuga heterophylla)
, contains quite different constituents. It is also closely related to the Douglas fir
(Pseudotsuga taxifolia)
, which is also used to produce an essential oil and a balsam.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The bark of the hemlock spruce (which contains tannins and resin as well as volatile oil) is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia indicated for diarrhoea, cystitis, mucous colitis, leucorrhoea, uterine prolapse, pharyngitis, stomatitis, and gingivitis. An extract of the bark is also used in the tanning industry.

ACTIONS Antimicrobial, antiseptic, antitussive, astringent, diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant, nervine, rubefacient, tonic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the needles and twigs.

CHARACTERISTICS A colourless or pale yellow liquid with a pleasing, fresh-balsamic, sweet-fruity odour. It blends well with pine, oakmoss, cedarwood, galbanum, benzoin, lavender, lavandin and rosemary.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly pinenes, limonene, bornyl acetate, tricyclene, phellandrene, myrcene, thujone, dipentene and cadinene, among others. Constituents vary according to source and exact botanical species (sometimes mixed).

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

CIRCULATION, MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatism.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Asthma, bronchitis, coughs, respiratory weakness.

IMMUNE SYSTEM
: Colds, ’flu, infections.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
: Anxiety, stress-related conditions – ‘opening and elevating though grounding … excellent for yoga and meditation.’
⁹⁶

OTHER USES Used in veterinary liniments. Extensively used for room spray perfumes, household detergents, soaps, bath preparations and toiletries, especially in the USA.

Liquidambar orientalis

FAMILY Hamamelidaceae

SYNONYMS
Balsam styracis
, oriental sweetgum, Turkish sweetgum, asiatic styrax, styrax, storax, liquid storax.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A deciduous tree up to 15 metres high with a purplish-grey bark, leaves arranged into five three-lobed sections, and white flowers. The styrax is a pathological secretion produced by pounding the bark, which induces the sapwood to produce a liquid from beneath the bark. It hardens to form a semi-solid greenish-brown mass with a sweet balsamic odour.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Asia Minor. It forms forests around Bodrum, Milas, Mugla and Marmaris in Turkey.

OTHER SPECIES Very similar to the American styrax
(L. styraciflua)
or red gum, which produces a natural exudation slightly darker and harder than the Levant type. There are also many other types of styrax;
Styrax officinale
produced the styrax of ancient civilizations. NB:
Styrax benzoin
is the botanical name for benzoin, with which it shares similar qualities.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION In China it is used for coughs, colds, epilepsy and skin problems, including cuts, wounds and scabies. In the West it has been recommended as a remedy for catarrh, diphtheria, gonorrhoea, leucorrhoea, ringworm, etc. A syrup made from the bark of the American styrax is used for diarrhoea and dysentery in the western USA.

ACTIONS Anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antitussive, bactericidal, balsamic, expectorant, nervine, stimulant.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the crude. (A resinoid and absolute are also produced by solvent extraction).

CHARACTERISTICS A water-white or pale yellow liquid with a sweet-balsamic, rich, tenacious odour. It blends well with ylang ylang, jasmine, mimosa, rose, lavender, carnation, violet, cassie and spice oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly styrene with vanillin, phenylpropyl alcohol, cinnamic alcohol, benzyl alcohol and ethyl alcohol, among others.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization in some individuals. Frequently adulterated.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Cuts, ringworm, scabies, wounds.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Bronchitis, catarrh, coughs.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
: Anxiety, stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES Used in compound benzoin tincture, mainly for respiratory conditions. The oil and resinoid are used as fixatives and fragrance components mainly in soaps, floral and oriental perfumes. The resinoid and absolute are used in most major food categories, including alcoholic and soft drinks.

Tagetes minuta

FAMILY Asteraceae (Compositae)

SYNONYMS
T. glandulifera
, tagette, taget, marigold, Mexican marigold, wrongly called ‘calendula’ (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A strongly scented annual herb about 30 cms high with bright orange, daisylike flowers and soft green oval leaves.

DISTRIBUTION Native to South America and Mexico. Now grows wild in Africa, Europe, Asia and North America. The oil is mainly produced in South Africa, France, Argentina and Egypt, the absolute in Nigeria and France.

OTHER SPECIES There are several other types of tagetes which share similar characteristics and are used to produce essential oils, notably the French marigold
(T. patula)
and the African or Aztec marigold
(T. erecta)
– see also Botanical Classification section.

NB: Not to be confused with the ‘true’ marigold
(Calendula officinalis)
which has very different properties and constituents, and is used extensively in herbal medicine (and occasionally to make an absolute). See entry on marigold.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION In India the locally grown flowering tops of the French marigold are distilled into a receiver which contains a solvent, often sandalwood oil, to produce ‘attar genda’ – a popular Indian perfume material. In China the flowers of the African marigold are used for whooping cough, colds, colic, mumps, sore eyes and mastitis – usually as a decoction.

ACTIONS Anthelmintic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, carminative, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, fungicidal, stomachic.

EXTRACTION 1. An essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh flowering herb. 2. An absolute (and concrete) by solvent extraction from the fresh flowering herb.

CHARACTERISTICS 1. A dark orange or yellow mobile liquid which slowly solidifies on exposure to air and light, with a bitter-green, her by odour. 2. An orange, olive or brown semi-liquid mass with an intense, sweet, green-fruity odour. It blends well with clary sage, lavender, jasmine, bergamot and other citrus oils in very small percentages.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly tagetones, with ocimene, myrcene, linalol, limonene, pinenes, carvone, citral, camphene, valeric acid and salicylaldehyde, among others.

SAFETY DATA ‘It is quite possible that “tagetone” (the main constituent) is harmful to the human organism.’
⁹⁷
Some reported cases of dermatitis with the tagetes species. Use with care, in moderation.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Bunions, calluses, corns, fungal infections.

OTHER USES Used in some pharmaceutical products. The absolute and oil are employed to a limited extent in herbaceous and floral perfumes. Used for flavouring tobacco and in most major food categories, including alcoholic and soft drinks.

Tanacetum vulgare

FAMILY Asteraceae (Compositae)

SYNONYMS
Chrysanthemum vulgare
,
C.
tanacetum
, buttons, bitter buttons, bachelor’s buttons, scented fern, cheese.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A hardy perennial wayside herb, up to 1 metre high with a smooth stem, dark ferny leaves and small, round, brilliant yellow flowers borne in clusters. The whole plant is strongly scented.

DISTRIBUTION Native to central Europe; naturalized in North America and now found in most temperate regions of the world. The essential oil is mainly produced in France, Germany, Hungary, Poland and the USA.

OTHER SPECIES Closely related to the medicinal herb feverfew
(Tanacetum parthenium)
, the marigolds and daisy family.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Traditionally used to flavour eggs and omelettes. It has a long history of medicinal use, especially among gypsies, and is regarded as something of a ‘cure all’. It was used to expel worms, to treat colds and fever, prevent possible miscarriage and ease dyspepsia and cramping pains. Externally, the distilled water was used to keep the complexion pale, and the bruised leaves employed as a remedy for scabies, bruises, sprains and rheumatism. It was also used generally for nervous disorders and to keep flies and vermin away.

The flowers are still current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific (used externally) for worms in children.

ACTIONS Anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, carminative, diaphoretic, digestive, emmenagogue, febrifuge, nervine, stimulant, tonic, vermifuge.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the whole herb (aerial parts).

CHARACTERISTICS A yellow, olive or orange liquid (darkening with age) with a warm, sharp-spicy herbaceous odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Thujone (66–81 per cent), camphor, borneol, among others.

SAFETY DATA Oral toxin – poisonous due to high thujone content. Abortifacient.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE None. ‘Should not be used in aromatherapy whether internally or externally.’
⁹⁸

OTHER USES Occasionally used in herbaceous-type perfumes. The oil used to be used in alcoholic drinks – it is no longer used for flavouring.

Artemisia dracunculus

FAMILY Asteraceae (Compositae)

SYNONYMS Estragon (oil), little dragon, Russian tarragon.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A perennial herb with smooth narrow leaves; an erect stem up to 1.2 metres tall, and small yellowy-green, inconspicuous flowers.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Europe, southern Russia and western Asia. Now cultivated worldwide, especially in Europe and the USA. The oil is mainly produced in France, Holland, Hungary and the USA.

OTHER SPECIES The so-called French tarragon or ‘sativa’, which is cultivated as a garden herb, is a smaller plant with a sharper flavour than the Russian type and is a sterile derivative of the wild species.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The leaf is commonly used as domestic herb, especially with chicken or fish, and to make tarragon vinegar. The name is thought to derive from an ancient use as an antidote to the bites of venomous creatures and ‘madde dogges’. It was favoured by the maharajahs of India who took it as a tisane, and in Persia it was used to induce appetite.

‘The leaves, which are chiefly used, are heating and drying, and good for those that have the flux, or any prenatural discharge.’
⁹⁹
The leaf was also formerly used for digestive and menstrual irregularities, while the root was employed as a remedy for toothache.

ACTIONS Anthelmintic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, aperitif, carminative, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, hypnotic, stimulant, stomachic, vermifuge.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaves.

CHARACTERISTICS A colourless or pale yellow mobile liquid (turning yellow with age), with a sweet-anisic, spicy-green scent. It blends well with labdanum, galbanum, lavender, oakmoss, vanilla, pine and basil.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Estragole (up to 70 per cent), capillene, ocimene, nerol, phellandrene, thujone and cineol, among others.

SAFETY DATA Moderately toxic due to ‘estragole’ (methyl chavicol): use in moderation only. Possibly carcinogenic. Otherwise non-irritant, non-sensitizing. Avoid during pregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:
Anorexia, dyspepsia, flatulence, hiccoughs, intestinal spasm, nervous indigestion, sluggish digestion.

GENITO-URINARY SYSTEM
: Amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, PMT.

OTHER USES Used as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes. Employed as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories, especially condiments and relishes, as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.

Melaleuca alternifolia

FAMILY Myrtaceae

SYNONYMS Narrow-leaved paperbark tea tree, ti-tree, ti-trol, melasol.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A small tree or shrub (smallest of the tea tree family), with needlelike leaves similar to cypress, with heads of sessile yellow or purplish flowers.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Australia. Other varieties have been cultivated elsewhere, but
M. alternifolia
is not produced outside Australia, mainly in New South Wales.

OTHER SPECIES Tea tree is a general name for members of the
Melaleuca
family which exists in many physiological forms including cajeput
(M. cajeputi)
and niaouli
(M. viridiflora)
, and many others such as
M. bracteata
and
M. linariifolia
– see Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The name derives from its local usage as a type of herbal tea, prepared from the leaves. Our present knowledge of the properties and uses of tea tree is based on a very long history of use by the aboriginal people of Australia. It has been extensively researched recently by scientific methods with the following results:

‘1. This oil is unusual in that it is active against all three varieties of infectious organisms: bacteria, fungi and viruses. 2. It is a very powerful immuno-stimulant, so when the body is threatened by any of these organisms ti-tree increases its ability to respond.’
¹⁰⁰

ACTIONS Anti-infectious, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antiviral, bactericidal, balsamic, cicatrisant, diaphoretic, expectorant, fungicidal, immuno-stimulant, parasiticide, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam or water distillation from the leaves and twigs.

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellowy-green or water-white mobile liquid with a warm, fresh, spicy-camphoraceous odour. It blends well with lavandin, lavender, clary sage, rosemary, oakmoss, pine, cananga, geranium, marjoram, and spice oils, especially clove and nutmeg.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Terpinene-4-ol (up to 30 per cent), cineol, pinene, terpinenes, cymene, sesquiterpenes, sesquiterpene alcohols, among others.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization in some individuals.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Abscess, acne, athlete’s foot, blisters, burns, cold sores, dandruff, herpes, insect bites, oily skin, rashes (nappy rash), spots, veruccae, warts, wounds (infected).

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, sinusitis, tuberculosis, whooping cough.

GENITO-URINARY SYSTEM
: Thrush, vaginitis, cystitis, pruritis.

IMMUNE SYSTEM
: Colds, fever, ’flu, infectious illnesses such as chickenpox.

OTHER USES Employed in soaps, toothpastes, deodorants, disinfectants, gargles, germicides and, increasingly, in aftershaves and spicy colognes.

Thuja occidentalis

FAMILY Cupressaceae

SYNONYMS Swamp cedar, white cedar, northern white cedar, eastern white cedar, tree of life, American arborvitae, cedarleaf (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A graceful pyramid-shaped coniferous tree up to 20 metres high with scale-like leaves and broadly-winged seeds, sometimes planted as hedging. The tree must be at least fifteen years old before it is ready to be used for essential oil production.

DISTRIBUTION Native to north eastern North America; cultivated in France. The oil is produced mainly in Canada and the USA, similar oils are also produced in the East – see below.

OTHER SPECIES There are many forms and cultivated varieties of this tree: the western red cedar or Washington cedar
(T. plicata);
the Chinese or Japanese cedar
(T. orientalis
or
Biota orientalis);
the North African variety
(T. articulata)
which yields a resin known as ‘sanderac’.

The hiba tree
(Thujopsis dolobrata)
is used to produce hiba wood oil and hiba leaf oil in Japan. Hiba wood oil, according to available data, is non-toxic, non-irritant and non-sensitizing (unlike the other thuja oils), and has excellent resistance to fungi and bacteria due to the ketonic substances found in the oil. It is used extensively in Japan as an industrial perfume.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Used as an incense by ancient civilizations for ritual purposes. A decoction of leaves has been used for coughs, fever, intestinal parasites, cystitis and venereal diseases. The ointment has been used for rheumatism, gout, warts, veruccae, psoriasis and other ailments.

The twigs are current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, used specifically for bronchitis with cardiac weakness, and warts.

ACTIONS Antirheumatic, astringent, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, insect repellent, rubefacient, stimulant (nerve, uterus and heart muscles), tonic, vermifuge.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh leaves, twigs and bark.

CHARACTERISTICS A colourless to pale yellowy-green liquid with a sharp, fresh, camphoraceous odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Thujone (approx. 60 per cent), fenchone, camphor, sabinene and pinene, among others.

SAFETY DATA Oral toxin – poisonous due to high thujone content. Abortifacient.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE None. ‘Should not be used in aromatherapy either internally or externally.’
¹⁰¹

OTHER USES Used in pharmaceutical products such as disinfectants and sprays; also as a counter-irritant in analgesic ointments and liniments. A fragrance component in some toiletries and perfumes. Employed as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories (provided that the finished food is recognized thujone-free).