The Encyclopedia of Essential Oils (17 page)

OTHER SPECIES There are two types of broad-leaved peppermint although they look identical – one is rich in cineol
(E. dives var. C.)
and one is rich in ‘piperitone’
(E. dives var. Type).
It is also similar to the peppermint eucalyptus
(E. piperita)
and the grey or narrow-leaved peppermint
(E. radiata var. phellandra).
See also entry on eucalyptus blue gum and Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The aborigines used the burning leaves in the form of a fumigation for the relief of fever; ‘heat went out of sick man and into fire’.

ACTIONS See
Eucalyptus blue gum.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaves and twigs.

CHARACTERISTICS A colourless or pale yellow mobile liquid with a fresh, camphoraceous, spicy-minty odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Piperitone (40–50 per cent), phellandrene (20–30 per cent), camphene, cymene, terpinene and thujene, among others. It is sold as Grades A, B or C according to the exact balance of constituents.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant (in dilution), non-sensitizing. Eucalyptus oil is toxic if taken internally (see entry on eucalyptus blue gum).

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Cuts, sores, ulcers etc.

CIRCULATION, MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Arthritis, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism, sports injuries, sprains, etc.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, throat and mouth infections, etc.

IMMUNE SYSTEM
: Colds, fevers, ’flu, infectious illness, e.g. measles.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
: Headaches, nervous exhaustion, neuralgia, sciatica.

OTHER USES Little used medicinally these days except in deodorants, disinfectants, mouthwashes, gargles and in veterinary practice. ‘Piperitone’ rich oils are used in solvents. Employed for the manufacture of thymol and menthol (from piperitone).

Foeniculum vulgare

FAMILY Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)

SYNONYMS
F. officinale, F. capillaceum, Anethum foeniculum
, fenkel.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION Biennial or perennial herb up to 2 metres high, with feathery leaves and golden yellow flowers. There are two main varieties of fennel: bitter or common Fennel, slightly taller with less divided leaves occurring in a cultivated or wild form and sweet fennel (also known as Roman, garden or French fennel) which is always cultivated.

DISTRIBUTION Bitter fennel is native to the Mediterranean region, found growing wild in France, Spain, Portugal and North Africa (they produce the ‘weed’oil). It is cultivated extensively worldwide, the main oil producers being Hungary, Bulgaria, Germany, France, Italy and India.

Sweet fennel is thought to have originated on the island of Malta, having been introduced by monks or crusaders thousands of years ago. It is now grown principally in France, Italy and Greece.

OTHER SPECIES Bitter fennel
(F. vulgare var. amara)
and sweet fennel
(F. vulgare var. dulce)
are both closely related to the Florence fennel
(F. azoricum)
, a smaller plant with a large cylindrical fleshy root which can be eaten as a vegetable. There are also many other cultivated varieties such as the German or Saxon fennel,
the Russian, Indian and Japanese fennel, all of which produce slightly different oils.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION A herb of ancient medical repute, believed to convey longevity, courage and strength. It was also used to ward off evil spirits, strengthen the eyesight and to neutralize poisons. In eastern and western herbalism it is considered good for obstructions of the liver, spleen and gall bladder and for digestive complaints such as colic, indigestion, nausea and flatulence (an ingredient of children’s ‘gripe water’).

It has traditionally been used for obesity, which may be due to a type of oestrogenic action, which also increases the milk of nursing mothers. Still current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, used locally for conjunctivitis, blepharitis and pharyngitis.

ACTIONS Aperitif, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, depurative, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, galactagogue, laxative, orexigenic, stimulant (circulatory), splenic, stomachic, tonic, vermifuge.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation. 1. Sweet fennel oil is obtained from crushed seeds, and 2. bitter fennel oil from crushed seeds or the whole herb (the wild ‘weed’).

CHARACTERISTICS 1. A colourless to pale yellow liquid with a very sweet, anise-like, slightly earthy-peppery scent. It blends well with geranium, lavender, rose and sandalwood. 2. The seed oil is a pale yellow liquid with a sharp, warm camphoraceous odour; the ‘weed’ oil is pale orange-brown with a sharp, peppery-camphoraceous odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Anethole (50–60 per cent), limonene, phellandrene, pinene, anisic acid, anisic aldehyde, camphene, limonene, among others. In addition, bitter fennel oil contains 18–22 per cent fenchone, whereas the sweet fennel oil contains little or none.

SAFETY DATA Non-irritant, relatively non-toxic, narcotic in large doses; bitter fennel may cause sensitization in some individuals. Sweet fennel oil is preferred in aromatherapy and perfumery work, since it does not contain the harsh ‘fenchone’ note, and because it is non-sensitizing. Bitter fennel oil should not be used on the skin at all, although it is considered superior medicinally. Neither oil should be used by epileptics or during pregnancy. Use in moderation.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE Bitter fennel – none.

Sweet fennel:

SKIN CARE
: Bruises, dull, oily, mature complexions, pyorrhoea.

CIRCULATION, MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Cellulitis, obesity, oedema, rheumatism.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM:
Asthma, bronchitis.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
: Anorexia, colic, constipation, dyspepsia, flatulence, hiccough, nausea.

GENITO-URINARY SYSTEM
: Amenorrhoea, insufficient milk (in nursing mothers), menopausal problems.

OTHER USES In pharmaceutical products it is known as ‘codex’ fennel oil, used in cough drops, lozenges, etc; also used in carminative and laxative preparations. Extensively used as a flavour ingredient in all major food categories, in soft drinks and especially in alcoholic drinks such as brandy and liqueurs. Fennel oil (mainly sweet) is used in soaps, toiletries and perfumes. It also provides a good masking agent for industrial products, room sprays, insecticides, etc.

Abies alba

FAMILY Pinaceae

SYNONYMS
A. pectinata
, whitespruce, European silver fir, edeltanne, weisstanne, templin (cone oil), Strassburg or Vosges turpentine (oil), fir needle (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A relatively small coniferous tree, with a regular pyramidal shape
and a silvery white bark, grown chiefly for timber and as Christmas trees.

DISTRIBUTION Native to north European mountainous regions; cultivated mainly in Switzerland, Poland, Germany, France, Austria and especially Yugoslavia.

OTHER SPECIES Oils that are distilled from the twigs and needles of various members of the coniferous families,
Abies, Larix, Picea, Pinus
, and
Tsuga
, are all commonly called fir needle oil – it is therefore important to know the specific botanical name. There are many other members of the fir or
Abies
family, notably the Canadian balsam
(A. balsamifera)
and the Siberian fir
(A. siberica)
, the most popular fir needle oil in Europe and the USA due to its fine fragrance. Others include the Japanese fir needle oil from
A.mayriana
or
A.sachalinensis.
See also entries on spruce, pines and the Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION It is highly esteemed on the Continent for its medicinal virtues and its fragrant scent. It is used mainly for respiratory complaints, fever, muscular and rheumatic pain.

ACTIONS Analgesic, antiseptic (pulmonary), antitussive, deodorant, expectorant, rubefacient, stimulant, tonic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the 1. needles and young twigs, and 2. fir cones, broken up pieces (templin oil)

CHARACTERISTICS 1. A colourless or pale yellow liquid of pleasing, rich, sweet-balsamic odour. 2. Similar to the needle oil, but with a more orange-like fragrance. It blends well with galbanum, labdanum, lavender, rosemary, lemon, pine and marjoram.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS 1. Santene, pinene, limonene, bornyl acetate, lauraldehyde among others. 2. Pinene, limonene, borneol, bornyl acetate, among others.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant (except in high concentration), non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

CIRCULATION, MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Arthritis, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Bronchitis, coughs, sinusitis, etc.

IMMUNE SYSTEM
: Colds, fever, ’flu.

OTHER USES Employed as an ingredient in some cough and cold remedies and rheumatic treatments. Used as a fragrance component in deodorants, room sprays, disinfectants, bath preparations, soaps and perfumes.

Boswellia carteri

FAMILY Burseraceae

SYNONYMS Olibanum, gum thus.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A handsome small tree or shrub with abundant pinnate leaves and white or pale pink flowers. It yields a natural oleo gum resin which is collected by making incisions into the bark: at first, a milky-white liquid appears which then solidifies into tear-shaped amber to orange-brown lumps between the size of a pea and walnut.

DISTRIBUTION Native to the Red Sea region; grows wild throughout north east Africa. The gum is mainly produced in Somalia, Ethiopia,
China and south Arabia, then distilled in Europe and, to a lesser extent, India.

OTHER SPECIES Other
Boswellia
species also yield olibanum gum, such as the Indian variety
B. serrata.
Constituents vary according to type and locality. See also Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Used since antiquity as an incense in India, China and in the west by the Catholic Church. In ancient Egypt it was used in rejuvenating face masks, cosmetics and perfumes. It has been used medicinally in the east and west for a wide range of conditions including syphilis, rheumatism, respiratory and urinary tract infections, skin diseases, as well as digestive and nervous complaints.

ACTIONS Anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, astringent, carminative, cicatrisant, cytophylactic, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, sedative, tonic, uterine, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from selected oleo gum resin (approx. 3–10 per cent oil to 60–70 per cent resin). An absolute is also produced, for use mainly as a fixative.

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellow or greenish mobile liquid with a fresh, terpeney top note and a warm, rich, sweet-balsamic undertone. It blends well with sandalwood, pine, vetiver, geranium, lavender, mimosa, neroli, orange, bergamot, camphor, basil, pepper, cinnamon and other spices. It modifies the sweetness of citrus blends in an intriguing way.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly monoterpene hydrocarbons, notably pinene, dipentene, limonene, thujene, phellandrene, cymene, myrcene, terpinene; also octyl acetate, octanol, incensole, among others.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN
CARE: Blemishes, dry and mature complexions, scars, wounds, wrinkles.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, laryngitis.

GENITO-URINARY SYSTEM
: Cystitis, dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea, metrorrhagia.

IMMUNE SYSTEM
: Colds, ’flu.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
: Anxiety, nervous tension and stress-related conditions – ‘Frankincense has, among its physical properties, the ability to slow down and deepen the breath … which is very conducive to prayer and meditation.’
²⁵

OTHER USES The gum and oil are used as fixatives and fragrance components in soaps, cosmetics and perfumes, especially oriental, spice and men’s fragrances. Employed in some pharmaceuticals such as liniments and throat pastilles. Extensively used in the manufacture of incense. The oil is used in minute amounts in some foods (such as meat products), alcoholic and soft drinks.

Alpinia officinarum

FAMILY Zingiberaceae

SYNONYMS
Radix galanga minoris, Languas officinarum
, galanga, small galangal, Chinese ginger, ginger root, colic root, East Indian root.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A reed-like plant reaching a height of about 1 metre, with irregularly branched rhizomes red or brown on the outside, light orange within.

DISTRIBUTION Native to south east China, especially the island of Hainan. Cultivated in China, Indonesia, Thailand and Japan.

OTHER SPECIES Similar species grow in Malaysia, Java, India, etc. It is closely related to ginger
(Zingiber officinale)
and to the large galanga
(Galanga officinalis).
Not to be confused with the dried rhizomes of kaempferia galanga, known as ‘kentjoer’, which are used in Malaysia for medicinal purposes and for flavouring curry.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION It is used as a local spice, especially in curries; in India it is employed in perfumery. The root is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, indicated for dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, nausea and vomiting.

ACTIONS Antiseptic, bactericidal, carminative, diaphoretic, stimulant, stomachic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the rhizomes. (An oleoresin is also produced by solvent extraction.)

CHARACTERISTICS A greenish-yellow liquid with a fresh, spicy-camphoraceous odour. It blends well with chamomile maroc, sage, cinnamon, allspice, lavandin, pine needle, rosemary, patchouli, myrtle, opopanax and citrus oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Pinene, cineol, eugenol and sesquiterpenes.

SAFETY DATA Safety data unavailable at present.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE (Possibly digestive upsets.)

OTHER USES Employed as a flavour ingredient, especially in spice and meat products. Occasionally used in perfumery work.

Ferula galbaniflua

FAMILY Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)

SYNONYMS
F. gummosa
, galbanum gum, galbanum resin, ‘bubonion’.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A large perennial herb with a smooth stem, shiny leaflets and small flowers. It contains resin ducts which exude a milky juice, a natural oleoresin. The dried resinous exudation is collected by making incisions at the base of the stem.

DISTRIBUTION Native to the Middle East and western Asia; cultivated in Iran, Turkey, Afghanistan and Lebanon. Distillation usually takes place in Europe or the USA.

OTHER SPECIES There are two distinct types: Levant galbanum which is liquid or soft, and Persian galbanum which is solid or hard. Other
Ferula
species also yield galbanum gum, such as the muskroot; see also Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION It was used by the ancient civilizations as an incense, and in Egypt for cosmetics and in the embalming process. It is generally used in the east in a similar way to asafetida: for treating wounds, inflammations and skin disorders and also for respiratory, digestive and nervous complaints. Zalou root
(F. hermonic)
is used in Beirut as an aphrodisiac.

ACTIONS Analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, balsamic, carminative, cicatrisant, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, hypotensive, restorative, tonic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by water or steam distillation from the oleoresin or gum – only the Levant or soft type is used for oil production. A partially deterpenized oil is produced, known as ‘galbanol’. (A resinoid is also produced, mainly for use as a fixative.)

CHARACTERISTICS Crude – A dark amber or brown viscous liquid with a green-woody scent and a soft balsamic undertone. Oil – A colourless, or pale yellow or olive liquid with a fresh green topnote and woody-dry balsamic undertone. It blends well with hyacinth, violet, narcissus, lavender, geranium, oakmoss, opopanax, pine, fir, styrax and oriental bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Pinene, cadinol, cadinene and myrcene, among others.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Abscesses, acne, boils, cuts, heals scar tissue, inflammations, tones the skin, mature skin, wrinkles, wounds – ‘signifies drying and preservation’.
⁴¹

CIRCULATION, MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Poor circulation, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, chronic coughs.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:
Cramp, flatulence, indigestion.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
: Nervous tension and stress-related complaints.

OTHER USES The Persian gum used to be employed in pharmaceutical products. Both oil and resinoid are used as fixatives and fragrance components in soaps, detergents, creams, lotions and perfumes. Also used as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories, alcoholic and soft drinks.

Gardenia jasminoides

FAMILY Rubiaceae

SYNONYMS G.
grandiflora, G. radicans, florida
, gardinia, Cape jasmine, common gardenia.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A decorative bush, often grown for ornamental purposes, bearing fragrant white flowers.

DISTRIBUTION Native to the Far East, India and China. Efforts to produce the oil commercially have been largely unsuccessful.

OTHER SPECIES There are several varieties of gardenia depending on location, such as G.
citriodora
or G.
calyculata
found in Japan and Indonesia.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The flowers are used locally to flavour tea, much like jasmine.

ACTIONS Antiseptic, aphrodisiac.

EXTRACTION An absolute (and concrete) by solvent extraction from the fresh flowers.

CHARACTERISTICS A dark yellow, oily liquid with a sweet, rich, floral, jasmine-like scent. It blends well with ylang ylang, jasmine, tuberose, neroli, rose, spice and citrus oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly benzyl acetate, with phenyl acetate, linalol, linalyl acetate, terpineol and methyl anthranilate, among others – composition varies according to source.

SAFETY DATA Safety data unavailable at present. Almost all gardenia oil is now synthetically produced.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE Perfume.

OTHER USES Employed in high-class perfumery, especially oriental fragrances.

Allium sativum

FAMILY Amaryllidaceae or Liliaceae

SYNONYMS Common garlic, allium, poor man’s treacle!

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A strongly scented perennial herb up to 1.2 metres high with long, flat, firm leaves and whitish flowering stems. The bulb is made up of several cloves pressed together within a thin white skin.

DISTRIBUTION It is said to have originated in south west Siberia and then spread to Europe and Central Asia. It is naturalized in North America and cultivated worldwide. Major oil-producing countries include Egypt, Bulgaria, France, China, Germany and Japan.

OTHER SPECIES Closely related to the wild or wood garlic
(A. ursinum)
also known as ‘ramsons’. There are also many other wild species with similar but less pronounced properties.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION It has been used for thousands of years for its medicinal virtues: for respiratory and urinary tract infections; digestive disorders and infestations; skin eruptions; heart disease, high blood pressure and arteriosclerosis, as well as epidemics and fever. It was used in the First World War for preventing gangrene and sepsis.

It has a high reputation in the East: in China it is used for diarrhoea, dysentery, tuberculosis, diphtheria, hepatitis, ringworm, typhoid and trachoma, among others. It is also held in high regard in the West: specific in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia for chronic bronchitis. Its properties have been attested to by modern experimental and clinical research.

ACTIONS Amoebicidal, anthelmintic, antibiotic, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antitoxic, antitumour, antiviral, bactericidal, carminative, cholagogue, hypocholesterolemic, depurative, diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant, febrifuge, fungicidal, hypoglycaemic, hypotensive, insecticidal, larvicidal, promotes leucocytosis, stomachic, tonic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh crushed bulbs.

CHARACTERISTICS A colourless to pale yellow mobile liquid with a strong, unpleasant, familiar garlic-like odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Allicin, allylpropyl disulphide, diallyl disulphide, diallyl trisulphide, citral, geraniol, linalol, phellandrene, among others.

SAFETY DATA Generally non-toxic and non-irritant, although it has been known to irritate the stomach; may also cause sensitization in some individuals.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE Due to its unpleasant and pervasive smell, the oil is not often used externally. However, the capsules may be taken internally according to the instructions on the label for respiratory and gastro-intestinal infections, urinary tract infections such as cystitis, heart and circulatory problems, and to fight infectious diseases in general.

OTHER USES The oil is made into capsules and also included in many health food products mainly to help reduce high blood pressure and protect against heart disease. Extensively employed as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories, especially savouries.

Pelargonium graveolens

FAMILY Geraniaceae

SYNONYMS Rose geranium, pelargonium.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A perennial hairy shrub up to 1 metre high with pointed leaves, serrated at the edges and small pink flowers. The whole plant is aromatic.

DISTRIBUTION Native to South Africa; widely cultivated in Russia, Egypt, Congo, Japan, Central America and Europe (Spain, Italy and France). With regard to essential oil production, there are three main regions: Reunion (Bourbon), Egypt and Russia (also China).

OTHER SPECIES There are over 700 varieties of cultivated geranium and pelargonium, many of which are grown for ornamental purposes. There are several oil-producing species such as P.
odorantissimum
and P.
radens
, but P.
graveolens
is the main one commercially cultivated for its oil. See also Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The British plant herb robert
(Geranium robertianum)
and the American cranesbill
(G. maculatum)
are the most widely used types in herbal medicine today, having been used since antiquity. They have many properties in common with the rose geranium, being used for conditions such as dysentery, haemorrhoids, inflammations, metrorrhagia and menorrhagia (excessive blood loss during menstruation). The root and herb of cranesbill is specifically indicated in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia for diarrhoea and peptic ulcer.

ACTIONS Antidepressant, antihaemorrhagic, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, astringent, cicatrisant, deodorant, diuretic, fungicidal, haemostatic, stimulant (adrenal cortex), styptic, tonic, vermifuge, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaves, stalks and flowers. An absolute and concrete are also produced in Morocco.

CHARACTERISTICS The Bourbon oil is a greenish-olive liquid with a green, rosy-sweet, minty scent. The Bourbon oil is generally preferred in perfumery work; it blends well with lavender, patchouli, clove, rose, sandalwood, jasmine, juniper, neroli, bergamot and other citrus oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Citronellol, geraniol, linalol, isomenthone, menthone, phellandrene, sabinene, limonene, among others. Constituents vary according to type and source.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, generally non-sensitizing; possible contact dermatitis in hypersensitive individuals, especially with the Bourbon type.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Acne, bruises, broken capillaries, burns, congested skin, cuts, dermatitis, eczema, haemorrhoids, lice, oily complexion, mature skin, mosquito repellent, ringworm, ulcers, wounds.

CIRCULATION, MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Cellulitis, engorgement of breasts, oedema, poor circulation.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM:
Sore throat, tonsillitis.

GENITO-URINARY AND ENDOCRINE SYSTEMS
: Adrenocortical glands and menopausal problems, PMT.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
: Nervous tension, neuralgia and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES Used as a fragrance component in all kinds of cosmetic products: soaps, creams, perfumes, etc. Extensively employed as a flavouring agent in most major food categories, alcoholic and soft drinks.

Zingiber officinale

FAMILY Zingiberaceae

SYNONYMS Common ginger, Jamaica ginger.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION An erect perennial herb up to 1 metre high with a thick, spreading, tuberous rhizome root, which is very pungent. Each year it sends up a green reedlike stalk with narrow spear-shaped leaves and white or yellow flowers on a spike direct from the root.

DISTRIBUTION Native to southern Asia, extensively cultivated all over the tropics in Nigeria, the West Indies, India, China, Jamaica and Japan. Most oil is distilled in the UK, China and India.