The Encyclopedia of Essential Oils (15 page)

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly linalol (55–75 per cent), decyl aldehyde, borneol, geraniol, carvone, anethole, among others; constituents; vary according to source.

SAFETY DATA Generally non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing. Stupefying in large doses – use in moderation.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

CIRCULATION, MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Accumulation of fluids or toxins, arthritis, gout, muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatism, stiffness.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
: Anorexia, colic, diarrhoea, dyspepsia, flatulence, nausea, piles, spasm.

IMMUNE SYSTEM
: Colds, ’flu, infections (general), measles.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
: Debility, migraine, neuralgia, nervous exhaustion.

OTHER USES Used as a flavouring agent in pharmaceutical preparations, especially
digestive remedies. Used as a fragrance component in soaps, toiletries and perfumes. Employed by the food industry especially in meat products and to flavour liqueurs such as Chartreuse and Benedictine; also used for flavouring tobacco.

Saussurea costus

FAMILY Asteraceae (Compositae)

SYNONYMS 5.
lappa, Aucklandia costus, Aplotaxis lappa, A. auriculata.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A large, erect, perennial plant up to 2 metres high with a thick tapering root and numerous almost black flowers.

DISTRIBUTION Native to northern India; cultivated in India and south west China. The oil is mainly produced in India.

OTHER SPECIES Closely related to elecampane
(Inula helenium)
, whose roots are also used to produce an essential oil.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The root has been used for millennia in India and China for digestive complaints, respiratory conditions, as a stimulant and for infection including typhoid and cholera. It is also used as an incense.

ACTIONS Antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiviral, bactericidal, carminative, digestive, expectorant, febrifuge, hypotensive, stimulant, stomachic, tonic.

EXTRACTION The dried roots are macerated in warm water, then subjected to steam distillation followed by solvent extraction of the distilled water. (A concrete and absolute are also produced in small quantities.)

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellow or brownish viscous liquid of soft, woody-musty, extremely tenacious odour. It blends well with patchouli, opopanax, ylang ylang, oriental and floral fragrances.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly sesquiterpene lactones, including dihydrocostus lactone and costunolide (together up to 50 per cent), other sesquiterpenes such as costols, caryophyllene and selinene, as well as costic and oleic acids, among others.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization in some individuals. Subject to frequent adulteration.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Perfume.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Asthma, bronchitis, spasmodic cough.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
: Flatulence, indigestion, spasm.

NERVOUS SYSTEM: Debility, nervous exhaustion and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES Fixative and fragrance component in cosmetics and perfumes. Used as a flavour ingredient by the food industry, especially in confectionery, alcoholic and soft drinks.

Piper cubeba

FAMILY Piperaceae

SYNONYMS
Cubeba officinalis
, cubeba, tailed pepper, cubeb berry, false pepper.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION An evergreen climbing vine up to 6 metres high with heart-shaped leaves. Altogether similar to the black pepper plant, except that the fruit or seeds of the cubeb retain their peduncle or stem – thus the name, tailed pepper.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Indonesia, cultivated throughout south east Africa, usually
together with coffee crops. The oil is mainly produced at source in Indonesia.

OTHER SPECIES Closely related to the black pepper plant
(P. nigrum)
and to the South American matico
(P. augustifolium).
There are also many other related species grown in Indonesia which are, often used for adulteration, such as false cubebs
(P. crassipes).

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The seeds are used locally as a domestic spice. It has been traditionally used for treating genito-urinary infections, such as gonorrhoea, cystitis, urethritis, abscess of the prostate gland and leucorrhoea. It is also used for digestive upsets and respiratory problems such as chronic bronchitis. The seeds have a local stimulating effect on the mucous membrane of the urinary and respiratory tracts, and the powder was found ‘90 per cent clinically effective in treating amoebic dysentery’.
³²

ACTIONS Antiseptic (pulmonary, genito-urinary), antispasmodic, antiviral, bactericidal, carminative, diuretic, expectorant, stimulant.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the unripe but fully grown fruits or berries. (An oleoresin is also produced in small quantities.)

CHARACTERISTICS A pale greenish or bluish-yellow viscous liquid with a warm woody-spicy, slightly camphoraceous odour. It blends well with cananga, galbanum, lavender, rosemary, black pepper, allspice and other spices.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly sesquiterpenes and monoterpenes which include caryophyllene, cadinene, cubebene, sabinene, among others.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing. Frequently subject to adulteration.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Bronchitis, catarrh, congestion, chronic coughs, sinusitis, throat infections.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:
Flatulence, indigestion, piles, sluggish digestion.

GENITO-URINARY SYSTEMS:
Cystitis, leucorrhoea, urethritis.

OTHER USES Employed in diuretic and urinary antiseptic preparations and as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, toiletries, cosmetics and perfumes. Used as a flavouring agent in most major food categories; also used for flavouring tobacco.

Cuminum cyminum

FAMILY Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)

SYNONYMS C.
odorum
, cummin, roman caraway.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A small, delicate, annual herb about 50 cms high with a slender stem, dark green feathery leaves and small pink or white flowers followed by small oblong seeds.

DISTRIBUTION Native to upper Egypt, but from the earliest times cultivated in the Mediterranean region, especially Spain, France and Morocco; also in India and the USSR. The oil is mainly produced in India, Spain and France.

OTHER SPECIES Closely related to coriander
(Coriandrum sativum)
, with which it shares many properties.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION A traditional Middle Eastern spice, and one of the main ingredients of curry. Although it has gone out of use in Western herbalism it is still largely used in traditional Ayurvedic medicine, principally as a general stimulant but especially for digestive complaints such as colic, sluggish digestion and dyspepsia.

ACTIONS Anti-oxidant, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitoxic, aphrodisiac, bactericidal, carminative, depurative, digestive,
diuretic, emmenagogue, larvicidal, nervine, stimulant, tonic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the ripe seeds.

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellow or greenish liquid with a warm, soft, spicy-musky scent. It blends well with lavender, lavandin, rosemary, galbanum, rosewood, cardomon and oriental-type fragrances.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly aldehydes (up to 60 per cent), including cuminaldehyde; monoterpene hydrocarbons (up to 52 per cent), including pinenes, terpinenes, cymene, phellandrene, myrcene and limonene; also farnesene and caryophyllene, among others.

SAFETY DATA Generally non-toxic, non-irritant and non-sensitizing; however the oil is phototoxic – do not expose treated skin to direct sunlight. Avoid during pregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

CIRCULATION, MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Accumulation of fluids or toxins, poor circulation.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
: Colic, dyspepsia, flatulence, indigestion, spasm.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
: Debility, headaches, migraine, nervous exhaustion.

OTHER USES Used in veterinary medicine in digestive preparations. As a fragrance component in cosmetics and perfumes, and a flavour ingredient in many foods and drinks, especially meat products and condiments.

Cupressus sempervirens

FAMILY Cupressaceae

SYNONYMS Italian cypress, Mediterranean cypress.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A tall evergreen tree with slender branches and a statuesque conical shape. It bears small flowers and round, brownish-grey cones or nuts.

DISTRIBUTION Native to the eastern Mediterranean; now grows wild in France, Italy, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Spain, Portugal, North Africa, England and, to a lesser degree, the Balkan countries. Cultivation and distillation usually take place in France, also Spain and Morocco.

OTHER SPECIES There are many other species of cypress found throughout the world which are used to produce an essential oil, such as C.
lusitanica
found in Kenya. With regard to oil quality, however, C.
sempervirens
is considered superior.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION It was highly valued as a medicine and as an incense by ancient civilizations and it is still used as a purification incense by the Tibetans. It benefits the urinary system and is considered useful where there is excessive loss of fluid, such as heavy perspiration or menstrual loss and diarrhoea: ‘The cones are … very drying and binding, good to stop fluxes of all kinds.’
²⁴

The Chinese consider the nuts very nutritious, beneficial for the liver and respiratory system and to check profuse perspiration.

ACTIONS Antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, deodorant, diuretic, hepatic, styptic, sudorific, tonic, vasoconstrictive.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the needles and twigs. An oil from the cones is available occasionally. (A concrete and absolute are also produced in small quantities.)

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellow to greenish-olive mobile liquid with a smoky, sweet-balsamic tenacious odour. It blends well with cedarwood, pine, lavender, mandarin, clary sage, lemon, cardomon, Moroccan chamomile, ambrette seed, labdanum, juniper, benzoin, bergamot, orange, marjoram and sandalwood.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Pinene, camphene, sylvestrene, cymene, sabinol, among others.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant and non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Haemorrhoids, oily and overhydrated skin, excessive perspiration, insect repellent, pyorrhoea (bleeding of the gums), varicose veins, wounds.

Circulation, Musles and Joints: Cellulitis, muscular cramp, oedema, poor circulation, rheumatism.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Asthma, bronchitis, spasmodic coughing.

GENITO-URINARY SYSTEM
: Dysmenorrhoea, menopausal problems, menorrhagia.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
: Nervous tension and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES Employed in some pharmaceutical products; used as a fragrance component in colognes, after-shaves and perfumes.

Carphephorus odoratissimus

FAMILY Asteraceae (Compositae)

SYNONYMS
Trilisa odoratissima, Liatris odoratissima, Frasera speciosa
, hound’s tongue, deer’s tongue, Carolina vanilla, vanilla leaf, wild vanilla, vanilla trilisa, whart’s tongue, liatrix (oleoresin or absolute).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A herbaceous perennial plant distinguished by a naked receptacle and feathery pappus, with large, fleshy, dark green leaves, clasped at the base. When fresh, the leaves have little odour but when dried they acquire a vanilla-like odour, largely due to the coumarin that can be seen in crystals on the upper sides of the leaves.

DISTRIBUTION Native to eastern USA; gathered on the savannah land between North Carolina and Florida.

OTHER SPECIES There are several species of deertongue native to America, for example blazing star or prairie pine
(Liatris squarrosa)
, and gayfeather
(L. spicata).
Not to be confused with the common vanilla
(Vanilla planifolia)
or with the European hound’s tongue
(Cynoglossum officinale)
, all of which have been used in herbal medicine.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The roots have been used for their diuretic effects, and applied locally for sore throats and gonorrhoea. It has also been used as a tonic in treating malaria. In folklore the plant is associated with contraception and sterility in women.

ACTIONS Antiseptic, demulcent, diaphoretic, diuretic, febrifuge, stimulant, tonic.

EXTRACTION Oleoresin by solvent extraction from the dried leaves.

CHARACTERISTICS A dark green, heavy, viscous liquid with a rich, herbaceous, new-mown hay scent. It blends well with oakmoss, labdanum, lavandin, frankincense, clove, patchouli and oriental-type fragrances.

SPRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly coumarin (1.6 per cent), with dihydrocoumarin and terpenes, aldehydes and ketones.

SAFETY DATA ‘Coumarin has toxic properties including liver injury and haemorrhages.’
³³
(There is also the possibility of dermal irritation and phototoxicity due to the lactones present.)

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE None.

OTHER USES The oleoresin is used as a fixative and fragrance component in soaps, detergents and perfumery work. Used for flavouring tobacco and; also employed for the isolation of coumarin.

Anethum graveolens

FAMILY Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)

SYNONYMS
Peucedanum graveolens, Fructus anethi
, European dill, American dill.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION Annual or biennial herb up to 1 metre high with a smooth stem, feathery leaves and umbels of yellowish flowers followed by flat small seeds.

DISTRIBUTION Native to the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions; now cultivated worldwide, especially in Europe, USA, China and India. Dill seed oil is mainly produced in Europe (France, Hungary, Germany, England, Spain); dill weed oil in the USA.

OTHER SPECIES Indian dill or East Indian dil
(A. sowa)
is widely cultivated in the east, especially in India and Japan. A commercial oil is produced from the seed which has a different chemical composition and contains ‘dill apiol’.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Used since the earliest times as a medicinal and culinary herb. In Germany and Scandinavia especially, it is used with fish and cucumber, and the seeds baked in bread. In the west and east it is used as a soothing digestive aid for indigestion, wind, colic etc. especially in children, for which it is still current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.

ACTIONS Antispasmodic, bactericidal, carminative, digestive, emmenagogue, galactagogue, hypotensive, stimulant, stomachic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam (sometimes water) distillation from 1. fruit or seed, 2. herb or weed (fresh or partially dried).

CHARACTERISTICS 1. A colourless to pale yellow mobile liquid with a light fresh warm-spicy scent. 2. A colourless or pale yellow mobile liquid with a powerful sweet-spicy aroma. It blends well with elemi, mint, caraway, nutmeg, spice and citrus oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS 1. Carvone (30–60 per cent), limonene, phellandrene, eugenol, pinene among others. 2. Carvone (much less), limonene, pinene, etc. as well as terpinene. There are several different chemotypes of dill, for example, phellandrene is present in the English and Spanish oils but not in the German.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
: Colic, dyspepsia, flatulence, indigestion.

GENITO-URINARY AND ENDOCRINE SYSTEMS
: Lack of periods; promotes milk flow in nursing mothers.

OTHER USES Used in some pharmaceutical digestive preparations such as ‘dill water’. The weed oil is used as a fragrance component in detergents, cosmetics, perfumes and especially soaps. Both oils are used extensively in alcoholic, soft drinks and foodstuffs, especially pickles and condiments.