The Encyclopedia of Essential Oils (21 page)

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A small tropical tree with fragrant, lemongrass-scented leaves and flowers. The small fruits are shaped like peppers, from which the name ‘cubeba’ derives.

DISTRIBUTION Native to east Asia, especially China; cultivated in Taiwan and Japan. China is the main producer of the oil, much of which is used by the Chinese themselves.

OTHER SPECIES Despite its folk names, this plant is not related to lemon verbena
(Aloysia triphylla).
It belongs to the same family as the laurel tree, rosewood and cinnamon.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION It is planted as a wind breaker in China.

ACTIONS Antiseptic, deodorant, digestive, disinfectant, insecticidal, stimulant, stomachic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the fruits.

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellow mobile liquid with an intense, lemony, fresh-fruity odour (sweeter than lemongrass but less tenacious).

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly citral (up to 85 percent).

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization in some individuals.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Acne, dermatitis, excessive perspiration, greasy skin, insect repellent, spots.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
: Flatulence, indigestion.

IMMUNE SYSTEM
: Epidemics, sanitation.

OTHER USES Extensively used as a fragrance component in air fresheners, soaps, deodorants, colognes, toiletries and perfumes. Employed in flavouring work, especially fruit products. It serves as a source of natural ‘citral’ all over the world.

Levisticum officinale

FAMILY Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)

SYNONYMS
Angelica levisticum, Ligusticum

levisticum
, smellage, maggi herb, garden lovage, common lovage, old English lovage, Italian lovage, Cornish lovage.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A large perennial herb up to 2 metres high with a stout hollow stem and dense ornamental foliage. It has a thick fleshy root and greenish-yellow flowers. The whole plant has a strong aromatic scent.

DISTRIBUTION Native to southern Europe and western Asia; naturalized in North America. It is cultivated in central and southern Europe, especially in France, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia and Germany.

OTHER SPECIES Several related plants are also used to produce essential oils, such as sea lovage
(Ligusticum scoticum)
and alpine lovage
(L. mutellina).

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION A herb of ancient medical repute, used mainly for digestive complaints, oedema, skin problems, menstrual irregularities and fever. It was also believed to be good for the sight. The leaf stalks used to be blanched and used as a vegetable or in salads. The root is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for flatulent dyspepsia and anorexia.

ACTIONS Antimicrobial, antiseptic, antispasmodic, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, carminative, depurative, emmenagogue, expectorant, febrifuge, stimulant (digestive), stomachic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from 1. the fresh roots, and 2. the herb – fresh leaves and stalks.

CHARACTERISTICS 1. An amber or olive-brown liquid with a rich, spicy-warm, root-like odour. 2. A very pale yellow mobile liquid with a spicy, warm odour and sweet-floral undertone. It blends well with rose, galbanum, costus, opopanax, oakmoss, bay, lavandin and spice oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly phthalides (up to 70 per cent) such as butylidene, dihydrobutylidene, butylphthalides and ligostilides, with lesser amounts of terpenoids, volatile acids, coumarins and furocoumarins.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization/phototoxic effects. Use with care. Avoid during pregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

CIRCULATION, MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Accumulation of toxins, congestion, gout, oedema, poor circulation, rheumatism, water retention.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
: Anaemia, flatulence, indigestion, spasm.

GENITO-URINARY SYSTEM
: Amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, cystitis.

OTHER USES The root oil is used as a fragrance component in soaps, cosmetics and perfumes. The oils and extracts are used as savoury flavouring agents and in liqueurs and tobacco.

Citrus reticulata

FAMILY Rutaceae

SYNONYMS C.
nobilis, C. madurensis
, C.
unshiu
, C.
deliciosa
, European mandarin, true mandarin, tangerine, satsuma.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A small evergreen tree up to 6 metres high with glossy leaves, fragrant flowers and bearing fleshy fruit. The tangerine is larger than the mandarin and rounder, with a yellower skin, more like the original Chinese type.

DISTRIBUTION Native to southern China and the Far East. Brought to Europe in 1805 and to America forty years later, where it was renamed the tangerine. The mandarin is produced mainly in Italy, Spain, Algeria, Cyprus, Greece, the Middle East and Brazil; the tangerine in Texas, Florida, California and Guinea.

OTHER SPECIES There are many cultivars within this species: the terms tangerine
(
C.
reticulata)
and mandarin are used somewhat interchangeably, as is the word satsuma. They could be said to represent different chemotypes since the oils are quite different; see the Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The name comes from the fruit which was a traditional gift to the Mandarins of China. In France it is regarded as a safe children’s remedy for indigestion, hiccoughs, etc, and also for the elderly since it helps strengthen the digestive function and liver.

ACTIONS Antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, digestive, diuretic (mild), laxative (mild), sedative, stimulant (digestive and lymphatic), tonic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by cold expression from the outer peel. A mandarin petitgrain oil is also produced in small quantities by steam distillation from the leaves and twigs.

CHARACTERISTICS Mandarin oil is a yellowy-orange mobile liquid with a blue-violet hint, having an intensely sweet, almost floral citrus scent. It blends well with other citrus oils, especially neroli, and spice oils such as nutmeg, cinnamon and clove. Tangerine oil is an orange mobile liquid with a fresh, sweet, orangelike aroma. It has less body than mandarin and is little used in perfumery work.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Limonene, methyl methylanthranilate, geraniol, citral, citronellal, among others.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing. Possibly phototoxic, although it has not been demonstrated decisively.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Acne, congested and oily skin, scars, spots, stretch marks, toner.

CIRCULATION, MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Fluid retention, obesity.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:
Digestive problems, dyspepsia, hiccoughs, intestinal problems.

NERVOUS SYSTEM:
Insomnia, nervous tension, restlessness. It is often used for children and pregnant women and is recommended in synergistic combinations with other citrus oils.

OTHER USES Mandarin oil is used in soaps, cosmetics and perfumes, especially colognes. It is employed as a flavouring agent especially in sweets, soft drinks and liqueurs.

Calendula officinalis

FAMILY Asteraceae (Compositae)

SYNONYMS Calendula, marygold, marybud, gold-bloom, pot marigold, hollygold, common marigold, poet’s marigold.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION An annual herb up to 60 cms high with soft, oval, pale green leaves and bright orange daisylike flowers.

DISTRIBUTION Native to southern Europe and Egypt; naturalized throughout temperate regions of the world. Widely cultivated, especially in northern Europe for domestic and medicinal use. The absolute is only produced in France.

OTHER SPECIES There are several species of marigold, but the common marigold is the one generally used medicinally. It should not be confused with tagetes or taget from the Mexican marigold
(Tagetes minuta)
or the African marigold
(T. erecta)
, the oil of which is also often called ‘calendula’.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION A herb of ancient medical repute, said to ‘comfort the heart and spirits’.
⁵¹
It was also used for skin complaints, menstrual irregularities, varicose veins, haemorrhoids, conjunctivitis and poor eyesight. The flowers are current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, specific for enlarged or inflamed lymph nodes, sebaceous cysts, duodenal ulcers and inflammatory skin lesions.

The infused oil is useful for a wide range of skin problems including cracked and rough skin, nappy rash, grazes, cracked nipples, varicose veins and inflammations.

ACTIONS Antihaemorrhagic, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, diaphoretic, cholagogue, cicatrisant, emmenagogue, febrifuge, fungicidal, styptic, tonic, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION An absolute by solvent extraction from the flowers.

CHARACTERISTICS A dark greenish-brown viscous liquid with an intensely sharp, herbaceous odour. It blends well with oakmoss, hyacinth, floral and citrus oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS The absolute contains calendulin (a yellow resin), waxes and volatile oil.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing. The real calendula absolute is only produced in small quantities, and is difficult to get hold of.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Burns, cuts, eczema, greasy skin, inflammations, insect bites, rashes, wounds.

NB: ‘The infused oil is very valuable in Aromatherapy for its powerful skin-healing properties.’
⁵²

OTHER USES Used in high class perfumery.

Origanum majorana

FAMILY Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS
Marjorana hortensis
, knotted marjoram.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A tender bushy perennial plant (cultivated as an annual in colder climates), up to 60 cms high with a hairy stem, dark green oval leaves and small greyish-white flowers in clusters or ‘knots’. The whole plant is strongly aromatic.

DISTRIBUTION Native to the Mediterranean region, Egypt and North Africa. Major oil-producing countries include France, Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt, Bulgaria, Hungary and Germany.

OTHER SPECIES There is a great deal of confusion regarding the various species of marjoram or oregano. The most common types are the pot or French marjoram
(Origanum onites
or
Marjorana onites)
, which is a hardier plant than the sweet marjoram and of a spreading nature; the Spanish marjoram or oregano
(Thymus mastichina)
and the wild or common marjoram or oregano
(Origanum vulgare)
which is used to produce the so-called ‘oregano oil’. See entries on common oregano, Spanish oregano and also the Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION A traditional culinary herb and folk remedy. It was used by the ancient Greeks in their fragrances, cosmetics and medicines; the name oregano derives from a Greek word meaning ‘joy of the mountains’. It is a versatile herb which has a soothing, fortifying and warming effect; it aids digestive and menstrual problems, as well as nervous and respiratory complaints.

It is ‘comforting in cold diseases of the head, stomach, sinews and other parts, taken inwardly or outwardly applied … helps diseases of the chest, obstructions of the liver and spleen.’
⁵³
It is also very helpful for muscular and rheumatic pain, sprains, strains, stiff joints, bruises, etc.

ACTIONS Analgesic, anaphrodisiac, anti-oxidant, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiviral, bactericidal, carminative, cephalic, cordial, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, fungicidal, hypotensive, laxative, nervine, sedative, stomachic, tonic, vasodilator, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation of the dried flowering herb. An oleoresin is also produced in smaller quantities.

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellow or amber-coloured mobile liquid with a warm, woody, spicy-camphoraceous odour. It blends well with lavender, rosemary, bergamot, chamomile, cypress, cedarwood, tea tree and eucalyptus.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Terpinenes, terpineol, sabinenes, linalol, carvacrol, linalyl acetate, ocimene, cadinene, geranyl acetate, citral, eugenol, among others.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing. Not to be used during pregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

SKIN CARE
: Chilblains, bruises, ticks.

CIRCULATION, MUSCLES AND JOINTS
: Arthritis, lumbago, muscular aches and stiffness, rheumatism, sprains, strains.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
: Asthma, bronchitis, coughs.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
: Colic, constipation, dyspepsia, flatulence.

GENITO
-
URINARY SYSTEM
: Amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea, PMT.

IMMUNE SYSTEM
: Colds.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
: Headache, hypertension, insomnia, migraine, nervous tension and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES The oil and oleoresin are used as fragrance components in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes. Employed in most major food categories, especially meats, seasonings and sauces, as well as soft drinks and alcoholic beverages such as vermouths and bitters.

Pistacia lentiscus

FAMILY Anacardiaceae

SYNONYMS Mastick tree, mastick, mastix, mastich, lentisk.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A small bushy tree or shrub up to 3 metres high, which produces a natural oleoresin from the trunk. Incisions are made in the bark in order to collect the liquid oleoresin, which then hardens into brittle pea-sized lumps.

DISTRIBUTION Native to the Mediterranean region (France, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Turkey) and also found in North Africa. Most mastic is produced on the Greek Island of Chios; some is also produced in Algeria, Morocco and the Canary Islands.

OTHER SPECIES It belongs to the same family as Peruvian pepper or Peruvian mastic
(Schinus molle).
Mastic resembles the resin ‘sanderach’ but unlike the latter it can be chewed, rather than turning to powder.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION In the East it is used for the manufacture of sweets and cordials; it is still used medicinally for diarrhoea in children and is chewed to sweeten the breath. The oil was used in the West in a similar way to turpentine – ‘It has many of the properties of coniferous turpentines and was formerly greatly used in medicine.’
⁵⁴

ACTIONS Antimicrobial, antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, diuretic, expectorant, stimulant.

EXTRACTION 1. A resinoid is produced by solvent extraction from the oleoresin, and 2. an essential oil is produced by steam distillation from the oleoresin or occasionally directly from the leaves and branches.

CHARACTERISTICS 1. A pale amber or greenish viscous mass with a faint balsamic turpentine-like odour. 2. A pale yellow mobile liquid with a fresh balsamic turpentine-like odour. It blends well with lavender, mimosa, citrus and floral oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly monoterpene hydrocarbons – mostly pinenes.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization in some individuals.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE See
turpentine.

OTHER USES Used in dentistry and in the production of varnish. The resinoid and oil are employed in high class colognes and perfumes, and used as a flavouring agent, especially in liqueurs.

Melilotus officinalis

FAMILY Fabaceae (Leguminosae)

SYNONYMS Common melilot, yellow melilot, white melilot, corn melilot, melilot trefoil, sweet clover, plaster clover, sweet lucerne, wild laburnum, king’s clover, melilotin (oleoresin).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A bushy perennial herb up to 1 metre high with smooth erect stems, trifoliate oval leaves and small sweet-scented white or yellow flowers. The scent of the flowers becomes stronger on drying.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Europe and Asia Minor. Other similar species are found in Asia, the USA and Africa. The flowers are mainly cultivated in England, France, Germany and the USSR.

OTHER SPECIES There are several similar species such as
M. arvensis
, the oil of which is also used in perfumery and flavouring work.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The leaves and shoots are used on the Continent for conditions which include sleeplessness, thrombosis, nervous tension, varicose veins, intestinal disorders, headache, earache and indigestion. In the form of an ointment or plaster, it is used externally for inflamed or swollen joints, abdominal and rheumatic pain, also bruises, cuts and skin eruptions.

ACTIONS Anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic, antispasmodic, astringent, emollient, expectorant, digestive, insecticidal (against moth), sedative.

EXTRACTION A concrete (usually called a resinoid or oleoresin) by solvent extraction from the dry flowers.

CHARACTERISTICS A viscous dark green liquid with a rich, sweet-herbaceous ‘new-mown hay’ scent.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly coumarins – melilotic acid and orthocoumaric acid.

SAFETY DATA In 1953 in some countries including the USA, coumarin was banned from use in flavourings due to toxicity levels. Some coumarins are also known to be phototoxic.