Lesser Beasts: A Snout-to-Tail History of the Humble Pig (25 page)

113
Dairymaids churned butter, and the whey flowed
:
Robert Malcolmson,
The English Pig
(London: Hambledon, 2001), 39.

113
The British navy required as many as 40,000 pigs
:
Daniel Baugh,
British Naval Administration in the Age of Walpole
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965), 407–410.

113
Those legumes became hog feed
:
Adolphus Speed,
The Husbandman, Farmer, and Grasier’s Compleat Instructor
(London: Henry Nelme, 1697), 86.

114
In many cases, these pigs reached slaughter weight
:
S. White, “From Globalized Pig Breeds to Capitalist Pigs,”
Environmental History
16 (2011): 103–104.

114
An English agricultural writer picked up on this
:
John Laurence,
A New System of Agriculture
(Dublin: J. Hyde, 1727), 100.

114
Analysis of mitochondrial DNA shows
:
E. Giuffra et al., “The Origin of the Domestic Pig,”
Genetics
154 (2000): 1788.

114
In Neolithic China swine had served as a key source
:
S. O. Kim, “Burials, Pigs, and Political Prestige in Neolithic China,”
Current Anthropology
35 (1994).

115
Even in the twentieth century, pork accounted
:
E. Anderson,
The Food of China
(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988), 177.

115
Overall, however, pork represented just a tiny part
:
John L. Buck,
Land Utilization in China
(New York: Paragon, 1968), 411.

116
In the words of Chairman Mao
:
F. Bray, “Agriculture,” in
Science and Civilization in China
, ed. J. Needham (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 6:4.

116
It faced the problem of a growing population
:
Y. Yu, “Three Hundred Million Pigs,” in
Feeding a Billion
, ed. S. H. Wittwer et al. (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1987), 309–323.

116
This left no open land for pasturing
:
Earl B. Shaw, “Swine Industry of China,”
Economic Geography
14 (1938): 381–390.

116
When modernizers introduced American pig breeds
:
Sigrid Schmalzer, “Breeding a Better China: Pigs, Practices, and Place in a Chinese County, 1929–1937,”
Geographical Review
92 (2002): 17.

117
Some Chinese sows produced litters
:
H. Epstein,
Domestic Animals of China
(Farnham Royal, UK: Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau, 1969), 74.

Chapter 9

119
The ships also carried a menagerie
:
Charles Mann,
1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created
(New York: Knopf, 2011), 3–8.

120
These voyages started what has become known
:
Alfred Crosby,
The Columbian Exchange
(Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1972).

121
Just two years after Columbus’s second expedition
:
R. A. Donkin, “The Peccary,”
Transactions of the American Philosophical Society
75 (1985): 41.

121
In a few more years the number of hogs running wild
:
Alfred Crosby,
Ecological Imperialism
, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 175.

121
“Do not kill them”
:
Crosby,
Columbian Exchange
, 78.

121
When the 150 people aboard made it to shore
:
Virginia DeJohn Anderson, “Somer Islands’ ‘Hogge Money,’”
Environmental History
9 (2004): 128–131.

121
Columbus wrote that the trees and plants
:
Alfred Crosby, “Metamorphosis of the Americas,” in
Seeds of Change
, ed. Herman Viola and Carolyn Margolis (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991), 76.

122
One Spaniard risked blasphemy by claiming
:
B. J. Zadik, “The Iberian Pig in Spain and the Americas at the Time of Columbus” (master’s thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 2005), 24.

122
The Jamaican mountains soon held
:
Donkin, “Peccary,” 44.

122
in 1514 the governor of Cuba told King Ferdinand
:
Deb Bennett, “Ranching in the New World,” in Viola and Margolis,
Seeds of Change
, 101.

122
Peccaries, the American cousins to Eurasian pigs
:
Lyle K. Sowls,
Javelinas and Other Peccaries
(College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1997), 143–158.

122
American societies had developed without the livestock
:
Jared Diamond,
Guns, Germs, and Steel
(New York: W. W. Norton, 1998), 46–47.

123
Spanish soldiers, brutal as they were
:
Mann,
1493
, 97–101; F. Guerra, “The Earliest American Epidemic,”
Social Science History
12 (1988): 305–325; A. F. Ramenofsky and P. Galloway, “Disease and the Soto Entrada,” in
Hernando de Soto Expedition
, ed. P. Galloway (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997), 259–279.

124
A Spanish historian has argued
:
Crosby,
Columbian Exchange
, 77.

125
His enemies called him a swineherd
:
D. E. Vassberg, “Concerning Pigs, the Pizarros, and the Agro-Pastoral Background of the Conquerors of Peru,”
Latin American Research Review
13 (1978): 47–61.

125
On sandy soils closer to the coast
:
Angelos Hadjikoumis, “Traditional Pig Herding Practices in Southwest Iberia,”
Journal of Anthropological Archaeology
31 (2012): 353–364; T. Plieninger, “Constructed and Degraded? Origin and Development of the Spanish Dehesa Landscape,”
Erde Berlin
138 (2007): 25–46; D. W. Gade, “Parsons on Pigs and Acorns,”
Geographical Review
100 (2010): 598–606.

125
Given the ample supply of mast for hogs
:
James T. Parsons, “The Acorn-Hog Economy of the Oak Woodlands of Southwestern Spain,”
Geographical Review
52 (1962): 234.

126
In 1554 one community in Extremadura reported
:
Parsons, “Acorn-Hog,” 215.

126
Even that astonishing number wasn’t enough
:
Zadik, “Iberian Pig,” 44–48.

127
Only in dire circumstances would the leader
:
Lawrence A. Clayton et al.,
The De Soto Chronicles
(Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1993), 81.

127
When De Soto died of illness
:
Clayton,
De Soto Chronicles
, 138–139.

128
In most places pigs became village scavengers
:
Lauren Derby, “Bringing the Animals Back In: Writing Quadrupeds into the Environmental History of Latin America and the Caribbean,”
History Compass
9 (2011): 605.

Chapter 10

131
Spain derived its power from “Indian gold”
:
Anthony Pagden,
Lords of All the World
(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995), 67.

131
The English began to describe the New World’s gold
:
Pagden,
Lords
, 68.

132
The English saw themselves as fulfilling God’s decree
:
Genesis 1:26, KJV
.

132
Britain built an empire to rival Spain’s
:
Peter Coclanis, “Food Chains,”
Agricultural History
72 (2010): 667.

132
And Indians ultimately fared little better
:
The argument in this chapter derives largely from Virginia DeJohn Anderson,
Creatures of Empire
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2004).

133
Some sixty years before Raleigh
:
William Cronon,
Changes in the Land
(New York: Hill and Wang, 1983), 25.

133
Europeans marveled at the productivity
:
Charles Mann,
1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus
(New York: Knopf, 2005), 264–265; Emily Russell,
People and the Land Through Time
(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997), 26.

133
Columbus had been the first European to write
:
Betty Harper Fussell,
The Story of Corn
(New York: Knopf, 1992), 17.

133
William Wood, in Massachusetts, praised the Indian women
:
Anderson,
Creatures of Empire
, 81.

133
The Indians, wrote John Winthrop
:
Cronon,
Changes in the Land
, 130.

134
Robert Gray wrote that in Virginia
:
Anderson,
Creatures of Empire
, 79.

134
To justify seizing native land
:
Pagden,
Lords
, 76–79.

134
According to Roger Williams
:
Anderson,
Creatures of Empire
, 211.

134
In 1656, Virginia’s legislators offered
:
Anderson,
Creatures of Empire
, 107.

135
As historian Virginia DeJohn Anderson has phrased it
:
Anderson,
Creatures of Empire
, 108.

136
Sheep, because of what one colonist called
:
Anderson,
Creatures of Empire
, 110.

137
“The real American hog,” one observer said
:
L. C. Gray,
History of Agriculture in the Southern United States to 1860
(Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1958), 206.

137
That was the toughness needed
:
Roger Williams,
A Key into the Language of America
(Bedford, MA: Applewood Books, 1997), 114.

139
Livestock had the legal right to all land
:
David Grettler, “Environmental Change and Conflict over Hogs in Early Nineteenth-Century Delaware,”
Journal of the Early Republic
19 (1999): 197–220.

139
America’s farmers were “the most negligent”
:
Anderson,
Creatures of Empire
, 244.

139
A more acute observer explained
:
Steven Stoll,
Larding the Lean Earth
(New York: Hill and Wang, 2002), 127.

139
One man in Virginia reported
:
Gray,
History of Agriculture
, 20.

139
A planter in Georgia explained
:
John Mitchell and Arthur Young,
American Husbandry
(London: J. Bew, 1775), 347.

139
Virginian Robert Beverley noted
:
Robert Beverley,
History and Present State of Virginia
, ed. Susan Scott Parrish (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013), 251.

139
In 1660, Samuel Maverick reported
:
Cronon,
Changes in the Land
, 139.

139
As a Barbados planter explained
:
Anderson,
Creatures of Empire
, 152; John Otto,
The Southern Frontiers, 1607–1860
(New York: Greenwood Press, 1989), 33.

139
Pork and beef became New England’s
:
Anderson,
Creatures of Empire
, 152.

140
On the eve of the American Revolution
:
John McCusker,
The Economy of British America, 1607–1789
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985), 268.

141
“Tis true indeed, none of my deer are marked”
:
Anderson,
Creatures of Empire
, 216–217.

141
Often pigs were simply pushed further away
:
Percy Bidwell and John Falconer,
History of Agriculture in the Northern United States, 1620–1860
(New York: P. Smith, 1941), 22.

142
They devoured tuckahoe, a starchy root
:
Gordon Whitney,
From Coastal Wilderness to Fruited Plain
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 165.

142
Roger Williams observed that pigs lingered
:
Williams,
Key
, 114.

142
A more likely reason Indians disliked swine
:
Cotton Mather,
Magnalia Christi Americana
(Hartford, CT: Silas Andeus, 1853), 1:560.

143
“But these English having gotten our land”
:
Anderson,
Creatures of Empire
, 207.

143
Mattagund, an Indian leader in Maryland
:
Anderson,
Creatures of Empire
, 221.

Chapter 11

145
But European settlers had arrived with livestock
:
William Bowen,
The Willamette Valley
(Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1978), 87.

146
The American settlers did so using
:
Terry Jordan-Bychkov,
The American Backwoods Frontier
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989), 123; also see Steven Stoll,
Larding the Lean Earth
(New York: Hill and Wang, 2002), 104.

146
In 1823 New England traveler Timothy Dwight
:
Timothy Dwight,
Travels in New-England and New-York
(London: W. Barnes, 1823), 2:439.

146
One German observer noted in the 1780s
:
Jordan-Bychkov,
American Backwoods
, 4.