Hitler and the Holocaust (40 page)

25.
Nicholas Kállay,
Hungarian Premier
(London, 1954), 75–76; Fenyo,
Hitler, Horthy, and Hungary
, 72–78.

26.
Fenyo,
Hitler, Horthy, and Hungary
, 168ff. In a conversation with Kállay in Rome on 2 April 1943, Pope Pius XII thanked him “for having succeeded in keeping Hungary from such [Nazi] inhumanity.” The pope, according to Kállay, deplored the brutal German policy toward Jews.

27.
Randolph L. Braham, “The Rightists, Horthy, and the Germans: Factors Underlying the Destruction of Hungarian Jewry” in Vago and Mosse,
Jews and Non-Jews
, 137–56.

28.
Nevertheless, the Allied response has been much attacked. See J. S. Conway, “Between Apprehension and Indifference: Allied Attitudes to the Destruction of Hungarian Jewry,”
Wiener Library Bulletin
, new series, 27.30–31 (1973–1974): 37–48; Wyman,
Abandonment of the Jews
, 237–41; for the pope’s telegram to Horthy, see Rychlak,
Hitler
, 222.

29.
On Szálasi and the consequences of the coup on 15 October 1944, see C. A. Macartney,
October Fifteenth: A History oft Hungary, 1929–1945
(New York, 1957).

30.
On Rotta, see Phayer,
Catholic Church
, 106–9, and many relevant documents in
Adss
relating to Hungary in 1944. Also Leni Yahil, “Raoul Wallenberg: His Mission and His Activities in Hungary,”
Yad Vashem Studies
15 (1983): 7–54.

31.
For the Swiss press, David Kranzler,
The Man Who Stopped the Trains to Auschwitz: George Mantello, El Salvador, and Switzerland’s Finest Hour
(Syracuse, N.Y., 2000), 122–43. See also Theo Tschuy,
Dangerous Diplomacy
(Grand Rapids, Mich., 2000), 52ff., 146–207, for the story of the Swiss diplomat Carl Lutz, who saved thousands of Hungarian Jews in Budapest; on the darker aspects of indirect Swiss involvement in the Holocaust, see Alfred Häsler,
The Lifeboat Is Full: Switzerland and the Refugees, 1933–1945
(New York, 1969), 33–153; Georg Kreis, ed.,
Switzerland and the Second World War
(London, 2000), 103–57.

32.
Bauer,
Jews for Sale?
70–71.

33.
Ibid.
, 74–82, 98–99; Weissmandel’s accusations in
Hametzar
(New York, 1960) concerning the “betrayal” of European Jewry by world Jewry and the Zionist movement are refuted by Shabtai Teveth,
Ben-Gurion and the Holocaust
(New York, 1996), 112–30.

34.
Bauer,
Jews for Sale?
98ff.

35.
N Oren, “The Bulgarian Exception: A Reassessment of the Salvation of the Jewish Community,”
Yad Vashem Studies
7 (1968): 83–106; F. B. Chary,
Bulgarian Jews and the Final Solution
(Pittsburgh, 1972), 35–100; Avraham Ben-Yakov, “Bulgaria,” in
Encyclopaedia of the Holocaust
, 263–88.

36.
Michael Bar-Zohar,
Ha Rakevot yatsou raiqot: Ha-Hatzala Hanoezet shel yehudei Bulgaria me ha-hashmada
(Beyond Hitler’s grasp: The heroic rescue of Bulgaria’s Jews) (Or Yehuda, 1999), in Hebrew, 107–19, 133–37.

37.
Chary,
Bulgarian Jews
, 90ff., 129–83.

38.
Arendt,
Eichmann
, 187–88, Chary,
Bulgarian Jews
, 153–54.

39.
Leni Yahil,
The Rescue of Danish Jewry: Test of a Democracy
(Philadelphia, 1969), 31–83, 382–95.

40.
Tatiana Brustin-Berenstein, “The Historiographic Treatment of the Abortive Attempt to Deport the Danish Jews,”
Yad Vashem Studies
40 (1986): 181–218; Hans Kirchhof, “Denmark: A Light in the Darkness of the Holocaust,”
Journal of Contemporary History
30 (1995): 431–79.

41.
On the evolution of Swedish reactions, see the extensive documentation in Steven Koblik,
The Stones Cry Out: Sweden’s Response to the Persecution of the Jews
(New York, 1988), 167–293; Paul A. Levine,
From Indifference to Activism: Swedish Diplomacy and the Holocaust, 1938–1944
(Uppsala, 1996), points to the positive change in Swedish attitudes in 1942. See also Hannu Rautkallio,
Finland and the Holocaust
’(New York, 1987), for the rescue of Finland’s Jews.

42.
H. J. Boas,
Religious Resistance in Holland
(London, 1945); J. M. Snoek,
De Nederlandse Kerken en de Joden 1940–1945
(The Hague, 1990), 73–99.

43.
Jacob Presser,
The Destruction of the Dutch Jews
(New York, 1969); Leni Yahil, “Methods of Persecution, A Comparison of the ‘Final Solution’ in Holland and Denmark,”
Scripta Hierosolymi-tana Studies in History
23 (1972): 298ff.; J.C. H. Blom, “Persecution of the Jews in the Netherlands in a Comparative International Perspective,”
Dutch Jewish History
(Jerusalem, 1989), 2:273–90, and “Oorlogsdocumentatie ’40–45,”
Derde Jahrboek
(Amsterdam, 1989), 9–66; Guus Meershoek, “De Amsterdamse hoofscomissaris en de deportatie van de Joden,”
Derde Jahrboek
(Amsterdam, 1992), 9–44. Also by the same author,
Dienaren van het gezag: De Amsterdamse politie tijdens de bezetting
(Amsterdam, 1999) (Servants of the authorities: the Amsterdam police during the occupation) (Amsterdam, 1999).

44.
Louis de Jong, “Jews and Non-Jews in Nazi Occupied Holland,” in Max Beloff, ed.,
On the Track of Tyranny
(London, 1960),
139–55; Gerhard Hirschfeld,
Nazi Rule and Dutch Collaboration: The Netherlands under German Occupation, 1940–1945
(Oxford, 1988); also Louis de Jong,
Het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden tijdens de Tweede Wereldoorlog
, vols. 1–14 (The Hague, 1969–1991), which contains a great deal of information about the fate of Dutch Jewry in the Second World War.

45.
Joseph Michman, “The Controversial Stand of the Joodse Raad in the Netherlands,”
Yad Vashem Studies
10 (1974): 9–68; Dan Michman, “De oprichting van de ‘Joodsche Raad voor Amsterdam vanvit een vergelijkend perspectief,’ ”
Derde Jahrboek
(Amsterdam, 1992), 75–101.

46.
Maxime Steinberg,
L’Etoile et le fusil
, vol. 1:
La Question Juive, 1940–1942
(Brussels, 1983), 83–84, points out that many of the Ostjuden did not register as required by the authorities, which gave them a better chance of survival than in neighboring Holland.

47.
R. van Doorslaer
et al., eds., Les Juifs de Belgique: de l’immigration au génocide, 1925–1945
(Brussels, 1994); Martin Conway,
Collaboration in Belgium: Léon Degrelle and the Rexist Movement
(New Haven, 1993); Maxime Steinberg, “The Judenpolitik in Belgium Within the West European Context: Comparative Observations,” in Michman,
Belgium and the Holocaust
, 199–214.

48.
Pierre Pierrard,
Juifs et Catholiques Français
(Paris, 1970); Pierre Birnbaum,
Antisemitism in France
(Oxford, 1992), 109–99; Marrus and Paxton,
Vichy France
, 27–53.

49.
The relevant German documents are in Serge Klarsfeld, ed.,
Die Endlösung der Judenfrage in Frankreich
(Paris, 1977), 13–229; Joseph Billig,
La Solution finale de la question Juive
(Paris, 1977); G. Wellers, A. Kaspi, and S. Klarsfeld,
La France et la question Juive
(Paris, 1981); see also Paul Webster,
Pétain’s Crime: The Full Story of French Collaboration in the Holocaust
(London, 1990); Jacques Adler,
The Jews of Paris and the Final Solution
(New York, 1987), 223–40.

50.
Richard H. Weisberg,
Vichy Law and the Holocaust in France
(Amsterdam, 1996), 37–158.

51.
Jean Laloum,
La France antisémite de Darquier de Pellepoix
(Paris, 1979); on Vallat, see Marrus and Paxton,
Vichy France
, 73–120, and 281–340 for Darquier.

52.
Marrus and Paxton,
Vichy France
, 106ff.

53.
P. Laborie,
L’Opinion Français sur Vichy
(Paris, 1990); Susan Zuccotti,
The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews
(New York, 1993), 138–56.

54.
For German intentions and French police collaboration, see the documents in Klarsfeld,
Endlösung
, 50–66, 75–195; also John P. Fox, “How Far Did Vichy France ‘Sabotage’ the Imperative of Wannsee?” in Cesarani,
Final Solution
, 194–214.

55.
Marrus and Paxton,
Vichy France
, 261.

56.
Ibid., 269 (
FRUS
, 1942, 2:710, 26 August 1942).

57.
Ibid., 269 (
Jewish Telegraphic Agency
, 14 September 1942); also Geoffrey Warner,
Pierre Laval and the Eclipse of France
(London, 1968), and Fred Kupferman,
Pierre Laval
(Paris, 1976).

58.
M. Marrus, “French Churches and the Persecution of Jews in France, 1940–1944,”
Remembering for the Future
(1988) 307–46.

59.
Serge Klarsfeld,
Le Mémorial de la déportation des Juifs en France
(Paris, 1978). Many thousands of Jews were also assisted and hidden by members of the French population, especially in the countryside. One Protestant village, Le Chambon-sur-Lignon, smuggled several thousand Jews to safety.

60.
Renée Poznanski,
Les Juifs en France pendant la Seconde Guerre Mondiale
(Paris, 1997), 351 (“le gouvernement allemand les réclame, mais dans l’intention bien arrêtée de les exterminer impitoyablement et méthodiquement”); on Jewish responses, see Richard I. Cohen,
The Burden of Conscience: French Jewish Leadership During the Holocaust
(Bloomington, 1987), 185–92, and Lucien Lazare,
La résistance Juive en France
(Paris, 1988).

61.
Philippe Garnier, ed.,
Une certaine France: l’antisémitisme, 40–44
(Paris, 1975); Jean-Pierre Azéma and François Bédarida, eds.,
La France des années noires
(Paris, 1993), 2 vols.; Pierre Drieu la Rochelle,
Journal, 1939–1945
(Paris, 1992), 54–59. This diary of a leading French collaborator illustrates well enough the pervasive and paranoid antiSemitism of the time, though it is still relatively mild when compared to the racist ravings of Louis-Ferdinand Céline or Lucien Rebatet’s
Les Décombres
(Paris, 1942).

62.
Mein Kampf
, 637.

63.
Wolfgang Schieder, ed.,
Faschismus als soziale Bewegung: Deutschland und Italien im Vergleich
(Göttingen, 1983); George L. Mosse with Robert S. Wistrich, eds.,
International Fascism
(London, 1979), introduction by George Mosse, 1–38.

64.
E. R. von Starhemberg,
Between Hitler and Mussolini
(London, 1942), 92–93; Meir Michaelis,
Mussolini and the Jews: German-Italian Relations and the Jewish Question, 1922–1945
(Oxford, 1978), 69.

65.
Leon Poliakov and Jacques Sabille,
Jews under the Italian Occupation
(Paris, 1954), 49–180; Menahem Shelach,
Heshbon Damim [Blood Account]: Hatzaalat Yehudei Croatia al yiday ha-Italkim
(Tel Aviv, 1986), 51–156, on the rescue of Croatian Jewry by the Italians; Zuccotti,
Italians and the Holocaust;
Jonathan Steinberg,
All or Nothing: The Axis and the Holocaust, 1941–43
(London, 1991); and Daniel Carpi,
Between Mussolini and Hitler: The Jews and the Italian Authorities in France and Tunisia
(Hanover, N.H., 1994), 102–35, 241–49.

66.
Steinberg,
All or Nothing
, 168–80, pointedly highlights the stark contrast between the humanitarian and relatively liberal attitudes of the Italian Army and those of the Wehrmacht.

67.
Ibid. For the historical background, see the essays in Robert S. Wistrich and Sergio della Pergola, eds.,
Fascist Antisemitism and the Italian Jews
(Jerusalem, 1995), 13–96.

68.
Renzo de Felice,
Storia degli ebrei Italiani sotto il fascismo
(Turin, 1972); Nicola Caracciolo,
Gli ebrei e Italia durante la guerra 1940–45
(Rome, 1986), 42–43, quotes a survivor, Blanka Stern, who escaped to Italy: “the Germans had psychological ways of making us Jews into an inferior race, not human anymore, people without rights. When we arrived in Italy the people gave us back our sense of being human.” This is a fascinating book of interviews.

69.
Lochner,
Goebbels Diaries
, 241.

70.
On the “Final Solution” in Italy, see de Felice,
Storia
, 389–91; F. Folkel,
La Risiera di San Sabba
(Milan, 1979); Liliana Picciotto Fargion, “The Anti-Jewish Policy of the Italian Social Republic (1943–1945), in
Yad Vashem Studies
17 (1986): 18–49.

7. B
RITAIN
, A
MERICA, AND THE
H
OLOCAUST