Fixing the Sky (53 page)
Authors: James Rodger Fleming
28
Press release, November 13, 1946, GE Archives; Schaefer, “Production of Ice Crystals”; Byers, “History of Weather Modification.”
Press release, November 13, 1946, GE Archives; Schaefer, “Production of Ice Crystals”; Byers, “History of Weather Modification.”
29
Schaefer Laboratory Notebook, November 13, 1946, Schaefer Papers.
Schaefer Laboratory Notebook, November 13, 1946, Schaefer Papers.
30
Suits to V. H. Fraenckel, November 13, 1946, Schaefer Papers.
Suits to V. H. Fraenckel, November 13, 1946, Schaefer Papers.
31
Press release, November 14, 1946, GE Archives.
Press release, November 14, 1946, GE Archives.
33
Schaefer Papers.
Schaefer Papers.
35
Fleming, “Fixing the Weather,” 177.
Fleming, “Fixing the Weather,” 177.
36
Goldstein to GE, November 18, 1946, copy in Schaefer Papers.
Goldstein to GE, November 18, 1946, copy in Schaefer Papers.
37
Goldston, “Legal Entanglements”; Langmuir, “Summary of Results.”
Goldston, “Legal Entanglements”; Langmuir, “Summary of Results.”
38
Havens, “History of Project Cirrus,” 13.
Havens, “History of Project Cirrus,” 13.
39
“Interim Report.”
“Interim Report.”
40
“Project Cirrus” (1952), 13.
“Project Cirrus” (1952), 13.
42
“Many Legal Entanglements.”
“Many Legal Entanglements.”
43
“Project Cirrus” (1950), 287.
“Project Cirrus” (1950), 287.
44
Schaefer interview; Droessler, “Federal Government Activities,” 253.
Schaefer interview; Droessler, “Federal Government Activities,” 253.
45
Doubleday, “Air Force Activities”; Byers, “History of Weather Modification,” 16â17.
Doubleday, “Air Force Activities”; Byers, “History of Weather Modification,” 16â17.
46
News clippings, including
New York Times
, October 12, 1947, 24;
Albany Times-Union
, October 12, 1947, n.p.;
Christian Science Monitor
, October 14, 1947, 10;
Los Angeles Times
, October 14, 1947, 1, Schaefer Papers.
News clippings, including
New York Times
, October 12, 1947, 24;
Albany Times-Union
, October 12, 1947, n.p.;
Christian Science Monitor
, October 14, 1947, 10;
Los Angeles Times
, October 14, 1947, 1, Schaefer Papers.
47
Larry Murray, “Hurricane Study Only Begun, Says Schaefer,” October 17, 1947, clipping in Schaefer Papers.
Larry Murray, “Hurricane Study Only Begun, Says Schaefer,” October 17, 1947, clipping in Schaefer Papers.
48
Langmuir, “Growth of Particles,” 183â185.
Langmuir, “Growth of Particles,” 183â185.
49
Enders to Suits, November 13, 1947, with clipping enclosed, “Dry Ice and a Crazy Hurricane,” Schaefer Papers.
Enders to Suits, November 13, 1947, with clipping enclosed, “Dry Ice and a Crazy Hurricane,” Schaefer Papers.
50
Schaefer, “Preliminary Report.”
Schaefer, “Preliminary Report.”
51
Langmuir, “Growth of Particles,” 185.
Langmuir, “Growth of Particles,” 185.
52
Richard Gray, “U.S. Government Aims to Tame Hurricanes,”
Daily Telegraph
, August 2, 2008,
http://www.telegraph.co.uk
.
Richard Gray, “U.S. Government Aims to Tame Hurricanes,”
Daily Telegraph
, August 2, 2008,
http://www.telegraph.co.uk
.
53
Vonnegut, “Nucleation of Ice,” 593â595.
Vonnegut, “Nucleation of Ice,” 593â595.
54
Vonnegut interview.
Vonnegut interview.
55
Vonnegut Laboratory Notebook, November 1946, Vonnegut Papers.
Vonnegut Laboratory Notebook, November 1946, Vonnegut Papers.
56
Vonnegut interview.
Vonnegut interview.
57
Press release, October 21, 1947, GE Archives.
Press release, October 21, 1947, GE Archives.
58
Vonnegut interview.
Vonnegut interview.
60
Vonnegut interview.
Vonnegut interview.
61
Langmuir, “Report on Evaluation,” 23.
Langmuir, “Report on Evaluation,” 23.
63
Langmuir, “Seven Day Periodicity”; Brier, “7-Day Periodicities.”
Langmuir, “Seven Day Periodicity”; Brier, “7-Day Periodicities.”
64
Suits to Langmuir, August 26, 1949, copy in Vonnegut Papers.
Suits to Langmuir, August 26, 1949, copy in Vonnegut Papers.
65
Press release, January 2, 1950, GE Archives.
Press release, January 2, 1950, GE Archives.
66
Langmuir, “Abstract of Remarks, Oct. 1950,” GE Archives.
Langmuir, “Abstract of Remarks, Oct. 1950,” GE Archives.
68
Langmuir, note card, “TV Aug. 24, 8:33 am, Dave Garroway, Today,” after 1953, Langmuir Papers.
Langmuir, note card, “TV Aug. 24, 8:33 am, Dave Garroway, Today,” after 1953, Langmuir Papers.
69
“Review of Savannah Hurricane.”
“Review of Savannah Hurricane.”
70
“Rain Making Ineffective,” 375; Reichelderfer, “Letter,” 38.
“Rain Making Ineffective,” 375; Reichelderfer, “Letter,” 38.
71
“Scientist Would Move Rain Tests to South Pacific,”
Albuquerque Tribune
, April 29, 1955, 50, clipping in Schaefer Papers.
“Scientist Would Move Rain Tests to South Pacific,”
Albuquerque Tribune
, April 29, 1955, 50, clipping in Schaefer Papers.
72
Langmuir, “Report on Evaluation,” 23.
Langmuir, “Report on Evaluation,” 23.
73
“Scientist Would Move Rain Tests,” 50.
“Scientist Would Move Rain Tests,” 50.
74
Langmuir, “Production of Rain”; Langmuir, “Report on Evaluation,” 23; “Langmuir Predicts Hurricane Prevention,”
Washington Post
, August 25, 1955, 2.
Langmuir, “Production of Rain”; Langmuir, “Report on Evaluation,” 23; “Langmuir Predicts Hurricane Prevention,”
Washington Post
, August 25, 1955, 2.
75
Elliott, “Experience of the Private Sector”; “City Flip-Flop on Rainmaking,”
Daily News
, November 5, 1951, clipping in Schaefer Papers; Landsberg, “Memorandum for the Record.”
Elliott, “Experience of the Private Sector”; “City Flip-Flop on Rainmaking,”
Daily News
, November 5, 1951, clipping in Schaefer Papers; Landsberg, “Memorandum for the Record.”
77
Ibid
.,
cited in Richard Gray, “How We Made the Chernobyl Rain,”
Sunday Telegraph
, April 22, 2007, n.p.
Ibid
.,
cited in Richard Gray, “How We Made the Chernobyl Rain,”
Sunday Telegraph
, April 22, 2007, n.p.
79
Ibid.
6. Weather WarriorsIbid.
4
Fleming, “Sverre Petterssen,” 75â83.
Fleming, “Sverre Petterssen,” 75â83.
6
Hacker, “Military Patronage”; Mendelsohn, “Science, Scientists.”
Hacker, “Military Patronage”; Mendelsohn, “Science, Scientists.”
9
U.S. Army Medical Department, “Regulations,” 227.
U.S. Army Medical Department, “Regulations,” 227.
10
Fleming, “Storms, Strikes, and Sur veillance”; see also Whitnah,
History of the United States Weather Bureau
, 22â42; and Hawes, “Signal Corps.”
Fleming, “Storms, Strikes, and Sur veillance”; see also Whitnah,
History of the United States Weather Bureau
, 22â42; and Hawes, “Signal Corps.”
12
Fleming, “Fixing the Weather and Climate,” 176.
Fleming, “Fixing the Weather and Climate,” 176.
13
Ibid., 175â176.
Ibid., 175â176.
15
Simpson and Simpson, “Why Experiment?”; news clippings in Schaefer Papers.
Simpson and Simpson, “Why Experiment?”; news clippings in Schaefer Papers.
17
Suits, “Statement on Weather Control.”
Suits, “Statement on Weather Control.”
18
V. H. Fraenckel to C. Guy Suits, telegram, 1947; W. H. Milton Jr. to C. Guy Suits, September 2, 1947, Schaefer Papers.
V. H. Fraenckel to C. Guy Suits, telegram, 1947; W. H. Milton Jr. to C. Guy Suits, September 2, 1947, Schaefer Papers.
19
R. E. Evans to Vincent Schaefer, December 10, 1947, Schaefer Papers.
R. E. Evans to Vincent Schaefer, December 10, 1947, Schaefer Papers.
20
Vincent Schaefer to C. J. Brasefield, May 4, 1948; Vincent Schaefer to Michael J. Ference Jr., May 13, 1948, and reply May 14, 1948, Schaefer Papers.
Vincent Schaefer to C. J. Brasefield, May 4, 1948; Vincent Schaefer to Michael J. Ference Jr., May 13, 1948, and reply May 14, 1948, Schaefer Papers.
21
Kobler, “Stormy Sage,” 70.
Kobler, “Stormy Sage,” 70.
22
Byers, “History of Weather Modification,” 13.
Byers, “History of Weather Modification,” 13.
25
Byers, “History of Weather Modification,” 25â27.
Byers, “History of Weather Modification,” 25â27.
27
Act of Congress, August 13, 1953 (67 Stat. 559), as amended July 9, 1956 (70 Stat. 509); U.S. Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service,
Weather Modification
.
Act of Congress, August 13, 1953 (67 Stat. 559), as amended July 9, 1956 (70 Stat. 509); U.S. Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service,
Weather Modification
.
28
Orville, “Weather Made to Order?” 26.
Orville, “Weather Made to Order?” 26.
29
Nate Haseltine, “Cold War May Spawn Weather-Control Race,”
Washington Post and Times Herald
, December 23, 1957, A1.
Nate Haseltine, “Cold War May Spawn Weather-Control Race,”
Washington Post and Times Herald
, December 23, 1957, A1.
30
Quoted in “Weather Weapon,” 54.
Quoted in “Weather Weapon,” 54.
31
Fedorov, “Modification of Meteorological Processes,” 391.
Fedorov, “Modification of Meteorological Processes,” 391.
32
Quoted in Arthur Krock, “An Inexpensive Start at Controlling the Weather,”
New York Times
, March 23, 1961, 32.
Quoted in Arthur Krock, “An Inexpensive Start at Controlling the Weather,”
New York Times
, March 23, 1961, 32.
33
U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, “Hurricane Research Division History”; Willoughby et al., “Project STORMFURY.”
U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, “Hurricane Research Division History”; Willoughby et al., “Project STORMFURY.”
34
Gentry, “Hurricane Modification,” 497.
Gentry, “Hurricane Modification,” 497.
35
U.S. Navy, “Technical Area Plan,” 1.
U.S. Navy, “Technical Area Plan,” 1.
36
Simpson interview.
Simpson interview.
38
Simpson interview; MacDonald, “Statement”; Fleming, “Distorted Support.”
Simpson interview; MacDonald, “Statement”; Fleming, “Distorted Support.”
39
Jack Anderson, “Air Force Turns Rainmaker in Laos,”
Washington Post
, March 18, 1971), F7; Seymour M. Hersh, “Rainmaking Is Used as a Weapon by U.S.,”
New York Times
, July 3, 1972, 1.
Jack Anderson, “Air Force Turns Rainmaker in Laos,”
Washington Post
, March 18, 1971), F7; Seymour M. Hersh, “Rainmaking Is Used as a Weapon by U.S.,”
New York Times
, July 3, 1972, 1.
42
Fleming, “Pathological History,” 13.
Fleming, “Pathological History,” 13.
44
“Motorpool.”
“Motorpool.”
49
Fleming, “Pathological History,” 13.
Fleming, “Pathological History,” 13.
52
Doel and Harper, “Prometheus Unleashed.”
Doel and Harper, “Prometheus Unleashed.”
55
Quoted in U.S. House of Representatives,
Prohibition of Weather Modification
, 5; Munk, Oreskes, and Muller, “Gordon James Fraser MacDonald.”
Quoted in U.S. House of Representatives,
Prohibition of Weather Modification
, 5; Munk, Oreskes, and Muller, “Gordon James Fraser MacDonald.”
57
Seymour M. Hersh, “U.S. Admits Rain-Making from '67 to '72 in Indochina,”
New York Times
, May 19, 1974, 1; U.S. House of Representatives,
Weather Modification as a Weapon
.
Seymour M. Hersh, “U.S. Admits Rain-Making from '67 to '72 in Indochina,”
New York Times
, May 19, 1974, 1; U.S. House of Representatives,
Weather Modification as a Weapon
.
58
Gromyko to United Nations secretary-general, August 7, 1974, in U.S. House of Representatives,
Weather Modification as a Weapon
, 11â12.
Gromyko to United Nations secretary-general, August 7, 1974, in U.S. House of Representatives,
Weather Modification as a Weapon
, 11â12.
59
U.S. House of Representatives,
Weather Modification as a Weapon
, 510â513; Juda, “Negotiating a Treaty,” 28.
U.S. House of Representatives,
Weather Modification as a Weapon
, 510â513; Juda, “Negotiating a Treaty,” 28.
60
United Nations, “Convention on the Prohibition.”
United Nations, “Convention on the Prohibition.”
62
Goldblat, “Environmental Convention,” 57.
Goldblat, “Environmental Convention,” 57.
66
Conway, “World According to GARP,” 131â147.
Conway, “World According to GARP,” 131â147.
67
Marshall, “Greening of the National Labs,” 25.
Marshall, “Greening of the National Labs,” 25.
68
Stapler, “New Face of the Pacific,” n.p.
Stapler, “New Face of the Pacific,” n.p.
69
Cohen, “DoD News Briefing,” n.p.
7. Fears, Fantasies, and Possibilities of ControlCohen, “DoD News Briefing,” n.p.
2
von Neumann, “Can We Survive Technology?”
von Neumann, “Can We Survive Technology?”
3
Harper,
Weather by the Numbers
; see also Phillips, “General Circulation”; Smagorinsky, “Beginnings of Numerical”; Thompson, “History of Numerical”; and Nebeker,
Calculating the Weather
.
Harper,
Weather by the Numbers
; see also Phillips, “General Circulation”; Smagorinsky, “Beginnings of Numerical”; Thompson, “History of Numerical”; and Nebeker,
Calculating the Weather
.
4
Zworykin, “Outline of Weather Proposal,” 8.
Zworykin, “Outline of Weather Proposal,” 8.
5
von Neumann to Zworykin, October 24, 1945, in Zworykin, “Outline of Weather Proposal.”
von Neumann to Zworykin, October 24, 1945, in Zworykin, “Outline of Weather Proposal.”
6
Athelstan F. Spilhaus, “Comments on Weather Proposal,” November 6, 1945, in Zworykin, “Outline of Weather Proposal.”
Athelstan F. Spilhaus, “Comments on Weather Proposal,” November 6, 1945, in Zworykin, “Outline of Weather Proposal.”
7
Waldemar Kaempffert, “Julian Huxley Pictures the More Spectacular Possibilities That Lie in Atomic Power,”
New York Times
, December 9, 1945, 77; “Blasting Polar Ice,”
New York Times
, February 2, 1946, 11.
Waldemar Kaempffert, “Julian Huxley Pictures the More Spectacular Possibilities That Lie in Atomic Power,”
New York Times
, December 9, 1945, 77; “Blasting Polar Ice,”
New York Times
, February 2, 1946, 11.
8
“Sarnoff Predicts Weather Control and Delivery of the Mail by Radio,”
New York Times
, October 1, 1946, 1.
“Sarnoff Predicts Weather Control and Delivery of the Mail by Radio,”
New York Times
, October 1, 1946, 1.
10
. MacCracken, “On the Possible Use of Geoengineering.”
. MacCracken, “On the Possible Use of Geoengineering.”
13
Wexler, “Trip ReportâPrinceton, N.J., Oct. 14â15, 1946,” box 2, Wexler Papers.
Wexler, “Trip ReportâPrinceton, N.J., Oct. 14â15, 1946,” box 2, Wexler Papers.
14
Harald Sverdrup to Francis Reichelderfer, June 2, 1946, box 2, Wexler Papers.
Harald Sverdrup to Francis Reichelderfer, June 2, 1946, box 2, Wexler Papers.
16
Mann, “War Against Hail,” 8.
Mann, “War Against Hail,” 8.
17
Hoffman, “Controlling Hurricanes”; see also Hoffman, “Controlling the Global Weather”; and Hoffman, Leidner, and Henderson, “Controlling the Global Weather.”
Hoffman, “Controlling Hurricanes”; see also Hoffman, “Controlling the Global Weather”; and Hoffman, Leidner, and Henderson, “Controlling the Global Weather.”
18
Shachtman, “NASA Funds Sci-Fi Technology.”
Shachtman, “NASA Funds Sci-Fi Technology.”
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