What Hath God Wrought (136 page)
Read What Hath God Wrought Online
Authors: Daniel Walker Howe
Tags: #History, #United States, #19th Century, #Americas (North; Central; South; West Indies), #Modern, #General, #Religion
72. Dale Morgan,
Jedediah Smith and the Opening of the West
(Indianapolis, 1953).
Jedediah Smith and the Opening of the West
(Indianapolis, 1953).
73. For the texts of the New York laws of 1799 and 1817, see
Jim Crow New York
, ed. David Gellman and David Quigley (New York, 2003), 52–55, 67–72.
Jim Crow New York
, ed. David Gellman and David Quigley (New York, 2003), 52–55, 67–72.
74. For information on Isabella, I rely on Nell Painter,
Sojourner Truth
(New York, 1996); for Truth’s accent, 7–8. Reenactors usually portray her, inaccurately, with a southern accent.
Sojourner Truth
(New York, 1996); for Truth’s accent, 7–8. Reenactors usually portray her, inaccurately, with a southern accent.
75. David Brion Davis,
In the Image of God
(New Haven, 2001), 64.
In the Image of God
(New Haven, 2001), 64.
76. See Hugh Thomas,
The Slave Trade
(New York, 1997); John Thornton, “The African Background to American Colonization,” in Engerman and Gallman,
Cambridge Economic History of the United States
, I, 53–94; Juliana Barr, “From Captives to Slaves: Commodifying Indian Women in the Borderlands,”
JAH
92 (2005): 19–46; Evsey Dornar, “The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom,”
Journal of Economic History
30 (1970): 18–32.
The Slave Trade
(New York, 1997); John Thornton, “The African Background to American Colonization,” in Engerman and Gallman,
Cambridge Economic History of the United States
, I, 53–94; Juliana Barr, “From Captives to Slaves: Commodifying Indian Women in the Borderlands,”
JAH
92 (2005): 19–46; Evsey Dornar, “The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom,”
Journal of Economic History
30 (1970): 18–32.
77. Arthur Zilversmit,
The First Emancipation: The Abolition of Slavery in the North
(Chicago, 1967); James Horton and Lois Horton,
In Hope of Liberty
(New York, 1997), 55–76; Joannne Melish,
Disowning Slavery: Gradual Emancipation in New England
(Ithaca, N.Y., 1998), 101–7.
The First Emancipation: The Abolition of Slavery in the North
(Chicago, 1967); James Horton and Lois Horton,
In Hope of Liberty
(New York, 1997), 55–76; Joannne Melish,
Disowning Slavery: Gradual Emancipation in New England
(Ithaca, N.Y., 1998), 101–7.
78. Ira Berlin,
Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America
(Cambridge, Mass., 1998), 262–85, quotation from 264. Washington manumitted 124 in his will; Carter manumitted 509. Gary Nash,
The Forgotten Fifth: African Americans in the Age of Revolution
(Cambridge, Mass., 2006), 66, 104–05.
Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America
(Cambridge, Mass., 1998), 262–85, quotation from 264. Washington manumitted 124 in his will; Carter manumitted 509. Gary Nash,
The Forgotten Fifth: African Americans in the Age of Revolution
(Cambridge, Mass., 2006), 66, 104–05.
79. Roger Kennedy,
Mr. Jefferson’s Lost Cause
(New York, 2003), 210–16; Adam Rothman,
Slave Country
(Cambridge, Mass., 2005), 31–35.
Mr. Jefferson’s Lost Cause
(New York, 2003), 210–16; Adam Rothman,
Slave Country
(Cambridge, Mass., 2005), 31–35.
80. T. Stephen Whitman,
The Price of Freedom: Slavery and Manumission in Baltimore
(Lexington, Ky., 1997), 1; John Ashworth,
Slavery, Capitalism, and Politics in the Antebellum Republic
(Cambridge, Eng., 1995), I, 101–8; Richard Wade,
Slavery in the Cities
(New York, 1964), 243–81.
The Price of Freedom: Slavery and Manumission in Baltimore
(Lexington, Ky., 1997), 1; John Ashworth,
Slavery, Capitalism, and Politics in the Antebellum Republic
(Cambridge, Eng., 1995), I, 101–8; Richard Wade,
Slavery in the Cities
(New York, 1964), 243–81.
81. Lois Horton, “From Class to Race in Early America,”
JER
19 (1999): 631.
JER
19 (1999): 631.
82. See Leslie Harris,
In the Shadow of Slavery
(Chicago, 2003); Gary Nash,
Forging Freedom
(Cambridge, Mass., 1988); Elizabeth Bethel,
The Roots of African-American Identity
(New York, 1997); Patrick Rael, “The Market Revolution and Market Values in Antebellum Black Protest Thought,” in Martin,
Cultural Change and the Market Revolution
, 13–45.
In the Shadow of Slavery
(Chicago, 2003); Gary Nash,
Forging Freedom
(Cambridge, Mass., 1988); Elizabeth Bethel,
The Roots of African-American Identity
(New York, 1997); Patrick Rael, “The Market Revolution and Market Values in Antebellum Black Protest Thought,” in Martin,
Cultural Change and the Market Revolution
, 13–45.
83. Robert Fogel,
Without Consent or Contract
(New York, 1989), graphs on 124, 141; Michael Tadman, “The Demographic Cost of Sugar,”
AHR
105 (2000): 1534–75; William Dusinberre,
Slavery in the American Rice Swamps
(New York, 1996).
Without Consent or Contract
(New York, 1989), graphs on 124, 141; Michael Tadman, “The Demographic Cost of Sugar,”
AHR
105 (2000): 1534–75; William Dusinberre,
Slavery in the American Rice Swamps
(New York, 1996).
84. Steven Deyle,
Carry Me Back: The Domestic Slave Trade
(Oxford, 2005), 4–7; Stanley Engerman, “Slavery and Its Consequences for the South,” in Engerman and Gallman,
Cambridge Economic History of the United States
, 219–66, esp. 343. For more data, see Fogel’s
Without Consent or Contract
and its three accompanying volumes of substantiating analysis.
Carry Me Back: The Domestic Slave Trade
(Oxford, 2005), 4–7; Stanley Engerman, “Slavery and Its Consequences for the South,” in Engerman and Gallman,
Cambridge Economic History of the United States
, 219–66, esp. 343. For more data, see Fogel’s
Without Consent or Contract
and its three accompanying volumes of substantiating analysis.
85.
Politics
1255a–1255b, 1259b–1260b.
Politics
1255a–1255b, 1259b–1260b.
86.
Narrative of Sojourner Truth
, intro. William Kaufman (1850; Mineola, N.Y., 1997), 17, 12.
Narrative of Sojourner Truth
, intro. William Kaufman (1850; Mineola, N.Y., 1997), 17, 12.
87. Quoted in George Dangerfield,
The Era of Good Feelings
(New York, 1952), 213. There is an excellent discussion of master-slave relations in Peter Kolchin,
American Slavery
(New York, 1993), 111–27.
The Era of Good Feelings
(New York, 1952), 213. There is an excellent discussion of master-slave relations in Peter Kolchin,
American Slavery
(New York, 1993), 111–27.
88. Albert Raboteau,
Slave Religion
(New York, 1978), 317; John Boles,
Masters and Slaves in the House of the Lord
(Lexington, Ky., 1988), 2; James Oakes,
The Ruling Race
(New York, 1982), 114, 153–64.
Slave Religion
(New York, 1978), 317; John Boles,
Masters and Slaves in the House of the Lord
(Lexington, Ky., 1988), 2; James Oakes,
The Ruling Race
(New York, 1982), 114, 153–64.
89. Jeffrey Young,
Domesticating Slavery
(Chapel Hill, 1999), 133–40, 165–66; John Boles,
The South Through Time
(New York, 1995), 202. On the ages of masters and slaves, see Oakes,
Ruling Race
, 195–96.
Domesticating Slavery
(Chapel Hill, 1999), 133–40, 165–66; John Boles,
The South Through Time
(New York, 1995), 202. On the ages of masters and slaves, see Oakes,
Ruling Race
, 195–96.
90. Thomas Jefferson to Joel Yancey, Jan. 17, 1819,
Thomas Jefferson’s Farm Book
, ed. Edwin Betts (Princeton, 1953), 43.
Thomas Jefferson’s Farm Book
, ed. Edwin Betts (Princeton, 1953), 43.
91. Kenneth Stampp,
The Peculiar Institution
(New York, 1956), 38; Larry Hudson Jr.,
To Have and to Hold: Slave Work and Family Life in Antebellum South Carolina
(Athens, Ga., 1997), 177–84.
The Peculiar Institution
(New York, 1956), 38; Larry Hudson Jr.,
To Have and to Hold: Slave Work and Family Life in Antebellum South Carolina
(Athens, Ga., 1997), 177–84.
92. Stampp,
Peculiar Institution
, 86–140; John Ashworth,
Slavery, Capitalism, and Politics
(Cambridge, Eng., 1995), I, 1–8.
Peculiar Institution
, 86–140; John Ashworth,
Slavery, Capitalism, and Politics
(Cambridge, Eng., 1995), I, 1–8.
93. Charles Bolton,
Poor Whites of the Antebellum South
(Durham, N.C., 1994), 23–24; Jonathan Wells,
Origins of the Southern Middle Class
(Chapel Hill, 2004).
Poor Whites of the Antebellum South
(Durham, N.C., 1994), 23–24; Jonathan Wells,
Origins of the Southern Middle Class
(Chapel Hill, 2004).
94. Besides Fogel,
Without Consent or Contract
, see Lawrence Shore,
Southern Capitalists
(Chapel Hill, 1986), 11–15; William Scarborough,
Masters of the Big House
(Baton Rouge, 2003).
Without Consent or Contract
, see Lawrence Shore,
Southern Capitalists
(Chapel Hill, 1986), 11–15; William Scarborough,
Masters of the Big House
(Baton Rouge, 2003).
95. Joyce Appleby,
Inheriting the Revolution
(Cambridge, Mass., 2000), 59.
Inheriting the Revolution
(Cambridge, Mass., 2000), 59.
96. For more on the slaveholders’ political influence, see Robin Einhorn,
American Taxation, American Slavery
(Chicago, 2006).
American Taxation, American Slavery
(Chicago, 2006).
97. John Mayfield,
The New Nation
, rev. ed. (New York, 1982), 3–5; James Young,
The Washington Community
(New York, 1966).
The New Nation
, rev. ed. (New York, 1982), 3–5; James Young,
The Washington Community
(New York, 1966).
1. Washington
National Intelligencer
, Jan. 8, 1815. On communication between New Orleans and Washington, see Leonard Huber and Clarence Wagner,
The Great Mail: A Postal History of New Orleans
(State College, Pa., 1949).
National Intelligencer
, Jan. 8, 1815. On communication between New Orleans and Washington, see Leonard Huber and Clarence Wagner,
The Great Mail: A Postal History of New Orleans
(State College, Pa., 1949).
2. “In the present time of public calamity and war,” President Madison set aside the day as one “of public humiliation and fasting and of prayer to Almighty God for the safety and welfare of these States, His blessing on their arms, and a speedy restoration of peace.”
Presidential Messages
, I, 558.
Presidential Messages
, I, 558.
3. Ibid., 558–60; Irving Brant,
James Madison: Commander in Chief
(New York, 1961), 366.
James Madison: Commander in Chief
(New York, 1961), 366.
4. Harry Ammon,
James Monroe
(New York, 1971), 330; J.C.A. Stagg,
Mr. Madison’s War
(Princeton, 1983), 407–16.
James Monroe
(New York, 1971), 330; J.C.A. Stagg,
Mr. Madison’s War
(Princeton, 1983), 407–16.
5. Frank A. Casell, “Slaves of the Chesapeake Bay Area and the War of 1812,”
Journal of Negro History
57 (1972): 144–55; quotation from Sir George Cockburn on 151. See also John K. Mahon,
The War of 1812
(Gainesville, Fla., 1972), 312–15.
Journal of Negro History
57 (1972): 144–55; quotation from Sir George Cockburn on 151. See also John K. Mahon,
The War of 1812
(Gainesville, Fla., 1972), 312–15.
6. Quotations from James Sterling Young,
The Washington Community, 1800–1828
(New York, 1966), 184, and Robert Rutland,
The Presidency of James Madison
(Lawrence, Kans., 1990), 159.
The Washington Community, 1800–1828
(New York, 1966), 184, and Robert Rutland,
The Presidency of James Madison
(Lawrence, Kans., 1990), 159.
7. Paul Jennings, “A Colored Man’s Reminiscences of James Madison” (1865),
White House History
1 (1983): 46–51, quotation from 47.
White House History
1 (1983): 46–51, quotation from 47.
8. Ralph Ketcham,
James Madison
(New York, 1971), 577–78; Virginia Moore,
The Madisons
(New York, 1979), 321. The Madisons’ conduct was satirized in a mock-heroic poem,
The Bladensburg Races
(Washington, 1816).
James Madison
(New York, 1971), 577–78; Virginia Moore,
The Madisons
(New York, 1979), 321. The Madisons’ conduct was satirized in a mock-heroic poem,
The Bladensburg Races
(Washington, 1816).
9. Washington
National Intelligencer
, Sept. 2, 1814; Ketcham,
Madison
, 579.
National Intelligencer
, Sept. 2, 1814; Ketcham,
Madison
, 579.
10. Washington
National Intelligencer
, Aug. 31, 1814; Charles W. Humphries, “The Capture of York,” in Morris Zaslow, ed.,
The Defended Border: Upper Canada and the War of 1812
(Toronto, 1964), 251–70.
National Intelligencer
, Aug. 31, 1814; Charles W. Humphries, “The Capture of York,” in Morris Zaslow, ed.,
The Defended Border: Upper Canada and the War of 1812
(Toronto, 1964), 251–70.
11. Walter Lord,
The Dawn’s Early Light
(New York, 1972), 182–83, 197–201.
The Dawn’s Early Light
(New York, 1972), 182–83, 197–201.
12. Robin Winks,
The Blacks in Canada
(New Haven, 1971), 114–27; Frank A. Updyke,
The Diplomacy of the War of 1812
(1915; Gloucester, Mass., 1965), 404.
The Blacks in Canada
(New Haven, 1971), 114–27; Frank A. Updyke,
The Diplomacy of the War of 1812
(1915; Gloucester, Mass., 1965), 404.
13. William Wirt, quoted in Henry Adams,
History of the United States During the Administration of James Madison
(New York, 1890), VIII, 231.
History of the United States During the Administration of James Madison
(New York, 1890), VIII, 231.
14. The Republican Party of Jefferson was not the same as the Republican Party of Lincoln, which was founded in the 1850s and still exists today. The Republican Party of Jefferson eventually split, the “Old” Republicans becoming the Democratic Party of today and the “National” Republicans becoming the Whigs.
15. See C. Edward Skeen,
John Armstrong, Jr.
(Syracuse, N.Y., 1981), 187–213.
John Armstrong, Jr.
(Syracuse, N.Y., 1981), 187–213.
16. Stagg,
Mr. Madison’s War
, 424–28.
Mr. Madison’s War
, 424–28.
17. James Madison to John Adams, Dec. 17, 1814, quoted in Rutland,
Presidency of Madison
, 181.
Presidency of Madison
, 181.
18. See Stagg,
Mr. Madison’s War
, 438–39; Rutland,
Presidency of Madison
, 173–75, 185; Ammon,
James Monroe
, 338–41; Young,
Washington Community
, 185–86.
Mr. Madison’s War
, 438–39; Rutland,
Presidency of Madison
, 173–75, 185; Ammon,
James Monroe
, 338–41; Young,
Washington Community
, 185–86.
19. Brant,
Commander in Chief
, 361.
Commander in Chief
, 361.
20. Theodore Dwight,
History of the Hartford Convention
(New York, 1833), 352–79; William Edward Buckley,
The Hartford Convention
(New Haven, 1934).
History of the Hartford Convention
(New York, 1833), 352–79; William Edward Buckley,
The Hartford Convention
(New Haven, 1934).
21. Remini,
Jackson
, I, 308–15; Patrick Kastor,
The Nation’s Crucible: The Louisiana Purchase and the Creation of America
(New Haven, 2004), 174–78. For the later repercussions of this episode, see Joseph G. Tregle Jr., “Andrew Jackson and the Continuing Battle of New Orleans,”
JER
1 (1981): 373–93.
Jackson
, I, 308–15; Patrick Kastor,
The Nation’s Crucible: The Louisiana Purchase and the Creation of America
(New Haven, 2004), 174–78. For the later repercussions of this episode, see Joseph G. Tregle Jr., “Andrew Jackson and the Continuing Battle of New Orleans,”
JER
1 (1981): 373–93.
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